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Table of Contents General Information About Colon Cancer Stages of Colon Cancer Recurrent Colon Cancer Treatment Option Overview Treatment Options for Colon Cancer
To Learn More About Colon Cancer Get More Information From NCI Changes to This Summary (03/11/2009) About PDQ
General Information About Colon Cancer
Key Points for This Section
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Colon cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells
form in the tissues of the colon.
The colon is part of the
body’s digestive system. The
digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste
material out of the body. The digestive system is made up of the esophagus, stomach, and the small and large
intestines. The first 6 feet of the
large intestine are called the large bowel or colon. The last 6 inches are the rectum and the anal canal. The anal
canal ends at the anus (the opening
of the large intestine to the outside of the body). Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. |
Age and health history can affect the risk of developing colon
cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors include the following:
Possible signs of colon cancer include a change in bowel habits
or blood in the stool.
These and other symptoms may be caused by colon cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems
occur:
- A change in bowel
habits.
- Blood (either bright red or very dark) in the stool.
- Diarrhea, constipation, or feeling that the bowel does not
empty completely.
- Stools that are narrower than usual.
- Frequent gas pains, bloating,
fullness, or cramps.
- Weight loss for no known reason.
- Feeling very tired.
- Vomiting.
Tests that examine the rectum, rectal tissue, and blood are
used to detect (find) and diagnose colon cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
- Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
- Fecal occult
blood test: A test to check stool (solid waste) for blood that can only be seen with a microscope. Small samples of stool are placed on special cards and returned to the doctor or laboratory for testing.
| ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT) kit to check for blood in stool. |
- Digital rectal
exam: An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual.
- Barium
enema: A series of x-rays of the lower gastrointestinal tract. A liquid that contains barium (a silver-white metallic compound) is put into the rectum. The barium coats the lower gastrointestinal tract and x-rays are taken. This procedure is also called a lower GI series.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Barium enema procedure. The patient lies on an x-ray table. Barium liquid is put into the rectum and flows through the colon. X-rays are taken to look for abnormal areas. |
- Sigmoidoscopy: A procedure to look inside the rectum and sigmoid (lower) colon for polyps (small pieces of bulging tissue), abnormal areas, or cancer. A sigmoidoscope is inserted through the rectum into the sigmoid colon. A sigmoidoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Sigmoidoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the anus and rectum and into the lower part of the colon to look for abnormal areas. |
- Colonoscopy: A procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps, abnormal areas, or cancer. A colonoscope is inserted through the rectum into the colon. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Colonoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the anus and rectum and into the colon to look for abnormal areas. |
- Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
- Virtual colonoscopy: A procedure that uses a series of x-rays called computed tomography to make a series of pictures of the
colon. A computer puts the pictures together to create detailed images that may
show polyps and anything else that seems unusual on the inside surface of the colon. This test is also called colonography or CT colonography.
Certain factors affect prognosis
(chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on the following:
- The stage of the cancer (whether the
cancer is in the inner lining of the colon only, involves the whole colon, or has spread to other
places in the body).
- Whether the cancer has blocked or created a hole in the colon.
- The blood levels of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA; a substance in the blood that may be increased when cancer is present) before treatment begins.
- Whether the cancer has recurred.
- The patient’s general health.
Treatment options depend on the following:
- The stage of the cancer.
- Whether the cancer has recurred.
- The patient’s general health.
Stages of Colon Cancer
Key Points for This Section
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After colon cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done
to find out if cancer cells have spread within the colon or to other parts of
the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the colon or to other parts of the body
is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important
to know the stage in
order to plan treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:
- CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
- Lymph node biopsy: The removal of all or part of a lymph node. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells.
- Complete blood
count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and
checked for the following:
- Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay: A test that measures the level of CEA in the blood. CEA is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells. When found in higher than normal amounts, it can be a sign of colon cancer or other conditions.
- MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the colon. A substance called gadolinium is injected into the patient through a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
- Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
- Surgery: A procedure to remove the tumor and see how far it has spread through the colon.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:
- Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
- Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
- Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.
When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.
The following stages are used for colon cancer:
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As colon cancer progresses from Stage 0 to Stage IV, the cancer cells grow through the layers of the colon wall and spread to lymph nodes and other organs. |
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
In stage 0, abnormal cells are found in the innermost lining of the colon. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Stage 0 is also called carcinoma
in situ.
Stage I
In stage I, cancer has formed and spread beyond the innermost tissue layer of the colon wall to the middle layers. Stage I colon cancer is sometimes
called Dukes A colon cancer.
Stage II
Stage II colon cancer is divided into stage IIA and stage IIB.
Stage II colon cancer is sometimes called Dukes B colon cancer.
Stage III
Stage III colon cancer is divided into stage IIIA, stage IIIB, and stage IIIC.
Stage III colon cancer is sometimes called Dukes C colon cancer.
Stage IV
In stage IV, cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs. Stage IV colon cancer is sometimes called Dukes D colon cancer.
Recurrent Colon Cancer
Recurrent colon cancer is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated. The
cancer may come back in the colon or in other parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or both. Treatment Option Overview
Key Points for This Section
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There are different types of treatment for patients with colon
cancer.
Different types of treatment are available for patients with colon
cancer. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some
are being tested in clinical trials.
A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help
improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients
with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the
standard treatment, the new
treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Three types of standard treatment are used:
Surgery
Surgery (removing the cancer in an operation) is the most common treatment for all stages of colon cancer. A doctor may
remove the cancer using one of the following types of surgery:
- Local excision: If the
cancer is found at a very early stage, the doctor may remove it without cutting
through the abdominal wall. Instead,
the doctor may put a tube through the rectum into the colon and cut the cancer out. This
is called a local excision. If the cancer is found in a polyp (a small bulging piece of tissue), the operation is called a polypectomy.
- Resection: If the cancer is
larger, the doctor will perform a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount
of healthy tissue around it). The
doctor may then perform an anastomosis (sewing the healthy parts of the colon
together). The doctor will also usually remove lymph nodes near the colon and examine them under
a microscope to see whether they contain cancer.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Colon cancer surgery with anastomosis. Part of the colon containing the cancer and nearby healthy tissue is removed, and then the cut ends of the colon are joined. |
- Resection and colostomy: If the doctor is not
able to sew the 2 ends of the colon back together, a stoma (an opening) is made on the
outside of the body for waste to pass through. This procedure is called a
colostomy. A bag is placed around the stoma to collect the waste. Sometimes the colostomy is
needed only until the lower colon has healed, and then it can be reversed. If
the doctor needs to remove the entire lower colon, however, the colostomy may
be permanent.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090509114444im_/http://www.cancer.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Colon cancer surgery with colostomy. Part of the colon containing the cancer and nearby healthy tissue is removed, a stoma is created, and a colostomy bag is attached to the stoma. |
- Radiofrequency ablation: The use of a special probe with tiny electrodes that kill cancer cells. Sometimes the probe is inserted directly through the skin and only local anesthesia is needed. In other cases, the probe is inserted through an incision in the abdomen. This is done in the hospital with general anesthesia.
- Cryosurgery: A treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue, such as carcinoma in situ. This type of treatment is also called cryotherapy.
Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the
time of the operation, some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to increase the chances of a
cure, is called adjuvant
therapy.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy).
Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery may be used to treat cancer that has spread to the liver. This involves blocking the hepatic artery (the main artery that supplies blood to the liver) and injecting anticancer drugs between the blockage and the liver. The liver’s arteries then deliver the drugs throughout the liver. Only a small amount of the drug reaches other parts of the body. The blockage may be temporary or permanent, depending on what is used to block the artery. The liver continues to receive some blood from the hepatic portal vein, which carries blood from the stomach and intestine.
The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied.
Information about clinical trials is available from the
NCI Web site 1.
Biologic therapy
Biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patient’s immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body’s natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's clinical trials database.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
For colon cancer, a blood test to measure carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA; a
substance in the blood that may be increased when colon cancer is present) may
be done along with other tests to see if the cancer has come back.
Treatment Options for Colon Cancer
A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
Treatment of stage 0 (carcinoma in
situ) may include the following types of surgery:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage 0 colon cancer 2. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 3.
Stage I Colon Cancer
Treatment of stage I colon
cancer is usually resection /anastomosis.
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage I colon cancer 4. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 3.
Stage II Colon Cancer
Treatment of stage II colon
cancer may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage II colon cancer 5. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 3.
Stage III Colon Cancer
Treatment of stage III colon
cancer may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage III colon cancer 6. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 3.
Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer
Treatment of stage IV and recurrent colon
cancer may include the following:
Treatment of locally recurrent colon cancer may be local excision.
Special treatments of cancer that has spread to or recurred in the liver may include the following:
Patients whose colon cancer spreads or recurs after initial treatment with chemotherapy may be offered further chemotherapy with a different drug or combination of drugs.
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage IV colon cancer 7 and recurrent colon cancer 8. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 3.
To Learn More About Colon Cancer
For more information from the National Cancer Institute about colon cancer, see the following:
For general cancer information and other resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:
Get More Information From NCI
Call 1-800-4-CANCER
For more information, U.S. residents may call the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237) Monday through Friday from 9:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Deaf and hard-of-hearing callers with TTY equipment may call 1-800-332-8615. The call is free and a trained Cancer Information Specialist is available to answer your questions.
Chat online
The NCI's LiveHelp® 24 online chat service provides Internet users with the ability to chat online with an Information Specialist. The service is available from 9:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. Eastern time, Monday through Friday. Information Specialists can help Internet users find information on NCI Web sites and answer questions about cancer.
Write to us
For more information from the NCI, please write to this address:
- NCI Public Inquiries Office
- Suite 3036A
- 6116 Executive Boulevard, MSC8322
- Bethesda, MD 20892-8322
Search the NCI Web site
The NCI Web site 25 provides online access to information on cancer, clinical trials, and other Web sites and organizations that offer support and resources for cancer patients and their families. For a quick search, use our “Best Bets” search box in the upper right hand corner of each Web page. The results that are most closely related to your search term will be listed as Best Bets at the top of the list of search results.
There are also many other places to get materials and information about cancer treatment and services. Hospitals in your area may have information about local and regional agencies that have information on finances, getting to and from treatment, receiving care at home, and dealing with problems related to cancer treatment.
Find Publications
The NCI has booklets and other materials for patients, health professionals, and the public. These publications discuss types of cancer, methods of cancer treatment, coping with cancer, and clinical trials. Some publications provide information on tests for cancer, cancer causes and prevention, cancer statistics, and NCI research activities. NCI materials on these and other topics may be ordered online or printed directly from the NCI Publications Locator 26. These materials can also be ordered by telephone from the Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615. Changes to This Summary (03/11/2009)
The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as
new information becomes available. This section describes the latest
changes made to this summary as of the date above.
Editorial changes were made to this summary. About PDQ
PDQ is a comprehensive cancer database available on NCI's Web site.
PDQ is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. Most of the information contained in PDQ is available online at NCI's Web site 25. PDQ is provided as a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health, the federal government's focal point for biomedical research.
PDQ contains cancer information summaries.
The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries are available in two versions. The health professional versions provide detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions provide current and accurate cancer information.
The PDQ cancer information summaries are developed by cancer experts and reviewed regularly.
Editorial Boards made up of experts in oncology and related specialties are responsible for writing and maintaining the cancer information summaries. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made as new information becomes available. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") indicates the time of the most recent change.
PDQ also contains information on clinical trials.
A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Listings of clinical trials are included in PDQ and are available online at NCI's Web site 27. Descriptions of the trials are available in health professional and patient versions. Many cancer doctors who take part in clinical trials are also listed in PDQ. For more information, call the Cancer Information Service 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237); TTY at 1-800-332-8615. |
Glossary Terms
abdomen (AB-doh-men)
The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abdominal
Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abnormal
Not normal. An abnormal lesion or growth may be cancer, premalignant (likely to become cancer), or benign (not cancer).
adjuvant therapy (A-joo-vant THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment given after the primary treatment to increase the chances of a cure. Adjuvant therapy may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, or biological therapy.
anastomosis (an-AS-ta-MO-sis)
A procedure to connect healthy sections of tubular structures in the body after the diseased portion has been surgically removed.
anus (AY-nus)
The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body.
artery (AR-tuh-ree)
A blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to tissues and organs in the body.
barium enema
A procedure in which a liquid with barium in it is put into the rectum and colon by way of the anus. Barium is a silver-white metallic compound that helps to show the image of the lower gastrointestinal tract on an x-ray.
biological therapy (BY-oh-LAH-jih-kul THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment to boost or restore the ability of the immune system to fight cancer, infections, and other diseases. Also used to lessen certain side effects that may be caused by some cancer treatments. Agents used in biological therapy include monoclonal antibodies, growth factors, and vaccines. These agents may also have a direct antitumor effect. Also called biological response modifier therapy, biotherapy, BRM therapy, and immunotherapy.
biopsy (BY-op-see)
The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.
blood
A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.
blood chemistry study
A procedure in which a sample of blood is examined to measure the amounts of certain substances made in the body. An abnormal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.
bone cancer (... KAN-ser)
Primary bone cancer is cancer that forms in cells of the bone. Some types of primary bone cancer are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, and chondrosarcoma. Secondary bone cancer is cancer that spreads to the bone from another part of the body (such as the prostate, breast, or lung).
bowel (BOW-ul)
The long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. The bowel has two parts, the small bowel and the large bowel. Also called intestine.
breast (brest)
Glandular organ located on the chest. The breast is made up of connective tissue, fat, and breast tissue that contains the glands that can make milk. Also called mammary gland.
breast cancer (brest KAN-ser)
Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.
bypass
A surgical procedure in which the doctor creates a new pathway for the flow of body fluids.
cancer (KAN-ser)
A term for
diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and
can invade nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to
other parts of the body through the blood and lymph
systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma
is cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line
or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is cancer that begins in
bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other
connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is cancer that
starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and
causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced
and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are
cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in
the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
capillary
The smallest type of blood vessel. A capillary connects an arteriole (small artery) to a venule (small vein) to form a network of blood vessels in almost all parts of the body. The wall of a capillary is thin and leaky, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of fluids and gases between tissues and the blood.
carbohydrate
A sugar molecule. Carbohydrates can be small and simple (for example, glucose) or they can be large and complex (for example, polysaccharides such as starch, chitin or cellulose).
carcinoma in situ (KAR-sih-NOH-muh in SY-too)
A group of abnormal cells that remain in the place where they first formed. They have not spread. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Also called stage 0 disease.
catheter (KA-theh-ter)
A flexible tube used to deliver fluids into or withdraw fluids from the body.
cavity (KA-vih-tee)
A hollow area or hole. It may describe a body cavity (such as the space within the abdomen) or a hole in a tooth caused by decay.
CEA
A substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of people who have certain cancers, other diseases, or who smoke. It is used as a tumor marker for colorectal cancer. Also called carcinoembryonic antigen.
CEA assay
A laboratory test to measure carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of people who have certain cancers. Also called carcinoembryonic antigen assay.
cell (sel)
The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
chemoembolization (KEE-moh-EM-boh-lih-ZAY-shun)
A procedure in which the blood supply to the tumor is blocked surgically or mechanically and anticancer drugs are administered directly into the tumor. This permits a higher concentration of drug to be in contact with the tumor for a longer period of time.
chemotherapy (KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.
chest x-ray
An x-ray of the structures inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of high-energy radiation that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the chest, which can be used to diagnose disease.
clinical trial
A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical study.
colectomy (koh-LEK-toh-mee)
An operation to remove all or part of the colon. When only part of the colon is removed, it is called a partial colectomy. In an open colectomy, one long incision is made in the wall of the abdomen and doctors can see the colon directly. In a laparoscopic-assisted colectomy, several small incisions are made and a thin, lighted tube attached to a video camera is inserted through one opening to guide the surgery. Surgical instruments are inserted through the other openings to perform the surgery.
colon (KOH-lun)
The longest part of the large intestine, which is a tube-like organ connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other. The colon removes water and some nutrients and electrolytes from partially digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus.
colon cancer (KOH-lun KAN-ser)
Cancer that forms in the tissues of the colon (the longest part of the large intestine). Most colon cancers are adenocarcinomas (cancers that begin in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids).
colonoscope (koh-LAH-noh-SKOPE)
A thin, tube-like instrument used to examine the inside of the colon. A colonoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
colonoscopy (KOH-luh-NOS-koh-pee)
Examination of the inside of the colon using a colonoscope, inserted into the rectum. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
colostomy (koh-LOS-toh-mee)
An opening into the colon from the outside of the body. A colostomy provides a new path for waste material to leave the body after part of the colon has been removed.
complete blood count
A test to check the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood. Also called blood cell count and CBC.
computed tomography scan (kum-PYOO-ted toh-MAH-gruh-fee skan)
A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computerized axial tomography scan, computerized tomography, and CT scan.
constipation (KAHN-stih-PAY-shun)
A condition in which stool becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass, and bowel movements don’t happen very often. Other symptoms may include painful bowel movements, and feeling bloated, uncomfortable, and sluggish.
contrast material
A dye or other substance that helps show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or other imaging tests.
Crohn disease (KRONE dih-ZEEZ)
Chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly the small intestine and colon. Crohn disease increases the risk for colorectal cancer and small intestine cancer. Also called regional enteritis.
cryosurgery (KRY-oh-SER-juh-ree)
A procedure in which tissue is frozen to destroy abnormal cells. This is usually done with a special instrument that contains liquid nitrogen or liquid carbon dioxide. Also called cryoablation.
cryotherapy (KRY-oh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Any method that uses cold temperature to treat disease.
CT scan
A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography scan, computerized axial tomography scan, and computerized tomography.
diagnosis (DY-ug-NOH-sis)
The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.
diarrhea
Frequent and watery bowel movements.
digestive system (dy-JES-tiv SIS-tem)
The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum.
digital rectal examination (DIH-jih-tul REK-tul eg-zam-ih-NAY-shun)
An examination in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for abnormalities. Also called DRE.
disease progression
Cancer that continues to grow or spread.
drug
Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic.
endometrium (en-do-MEE-tree-um)
The layer of tissue that lines the uterus.
esophagus (ee-SAH-fuh-gus)
The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.
excision (ek-SIH-zhun)
Removal by surgery.
external radiation therapy (...RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
A type of radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer from outside of the body. Also called external-beam radiation therapy.
familial adenomatous polyposis (fuh-MIH-lee-ul A-deh-NOH-muh-tus PAH-lee-POH-sis)
An inherited condition in which numerous polyps (growths that protrude from mucous membranes) form on the inside walls of the colon and rectum. It increases the risk of colorectal cancer. Also called familial polyposis and FAP.
family history (FAM-ih-lee HIH-stuh-ree)
A record of a person's current and past illnesses, and those of his or her parents, brothers, sisters, children, and other family members. A family history shows the pattern of certain diseases in a family, and helps to determine risk factors for those and other diseases. Also called family medical history.
fecal occult blood test (FEE-kul uh-KULT...)
A test to check for blood in the stool. Small samples of stool are placed on special cards and sent to a doctor or laboratory for testing. Blood in the stool may be a sign of colorectal cancer. Also called FOBT.
follow-up
Monitoring a person's health over time after treatment. This includes keeping track of the health of people who participate in a clinical study or clinical trial for a period of time, both during the study and after the study ends.
gastrointestinal tract (GAS-troh-in-TES-tih-nul trakt)
The stomach and intestines. The gastrointestinal tract is part of the digestive system, which also includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and rectum.
general anesthesia (... A-nes-THEE-zhuh)
A temporary loss of feeling and a complete loss of awareness that feels like a very deep sleep. It is caused by special drugs or other substances called anesthetics. General anesthesia keeps patients from feeling pain during surgery or other procedures.
hemoglobin (HEE-moh-GLOH-bin)
The substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.
hepatic (heh-PA-tik)
Refers to the liver.
hepatic artery (heh-PA-tik AR-tuh-ree)
The major blood vessel that carries blood to the liver.
hepatic portal vein (heh-PA-tik POR-tul VAYN)
A blood vessel that carries blood to the liver from the stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder. Also called portal vein.
hereditary (huh-REH-dih-tayr-ee)
Transmitted from parent to child by information contained in the genes.
hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (huh-REH-dih-TAYR-ee NON-PAH-lee-POH-sis KOH-lun KAN-ser)
An inherited disorder in which affected individuals have a higher-than-normal chance of developing colorectal cancer and certain other types of cancer, often before the age of 50. Also called HNPCC and Lynch syndrome.
immune system (ih-MYOON SIS-tem)
The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.
incision (in-SIH-zhun)
A cut made in the body to perform surgery.
injection
Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."
internal radiation therapy (in-TER-nul RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
A type of radiation therapy in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation therapy, and radiation brachytherapy.
intestine (in-TES-tin)
The long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. The intestine has two parts, the small intestine and the large intestine. Also called bowel.
invasive cancer (in-VAY-siv KAN-ser)
Cancer that has spread beyond the layer of tissue in which it developed and is growing into surrounding, healthy tissues. Also called infiltrating cancer.
large intestine
The long, tube-like organ that is connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other. The large intestine has four parts: cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Partly digested food moves through the cecum into the colon, where water and some nutrients and electrolytes are removed. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon, is stored in the rectum, and leaves the body through the anal canal and anus.
liver
A large organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile.
local anesthesia (... A-nes-THEE-zhuh)
A temporary loss of feeling in one small area of the body caused by special drugs or other substances called anesthetics. The patient stays awake but has no feeling in the area of the body treated with the anesthetic.
local cancer
An invasive malignant cancer confined entirely to the organ where the cancer began.
local therapy (...THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment that affects cells in the tumor and the area close to it.
lung
One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
lymph (limf)
The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.
lymph node (limf node)
A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.
lymph vessel (limf ...)
A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.
lymphatic system (lim-FA-tik SIS-tem)
The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.
metastasis (meh-TAS-tuh-sis)
The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuh-SEEZ).
mineral (MIH-neh-rul)
In medicine, a mineral is a nutrient that is needed in small amounts to keep the body healthy. Mineral nutrients include the elements calcium, magnesium, and iron.
MRI
A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
National Cancer Institute
The National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. The National Cancer Institute conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the National Cancer Institute Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called NCI.
NCI
NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. It conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called National Cancer Institute.
nutrient (NOO-tree-ent)
A chemical compound (such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin, or mineral) contained in foods. These compounds are used by the body to function and grow.
organ
A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.
ovary (OH-vuh-ree)
One of a pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus.
oxygen (OK-sih-jen)
A colorless, odorless gas. It is needed for animal and plant life. Oxygen that is breathed in enters the blood from the lungs and travels to the tissues.
palliative therapy (PA-lee-uh-tiv THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment given to relieve the symptoms and reduce the suffering caused by cancer and other life-threatening diseases. Palliative cancer therapies are given together with other cancer treatments, from the time of diagnosis, through treatment, survivorship, recurrent or advanced disease, and at the end of life.
pathologist (puh-THAH-loh-jist)
A doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope.
PDQ
PDQ is an online database developed and maintained by the National Cancer Institute. Designed to make the most current, credible, and accurate cancer information available to health professionals and the public, PDQ contains peer-reviewed summaries on cancer treatment, screening, prevention, genetics, complementary and alternative medicine, and supportive care; a registry of cancer clinical trials from around the world; and directories of physicians, professionals who provide genetics services, and organizations that provide cancer care. Most of this information, and more specific information about PDQ, can be found on the NCI's Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq. Also called Physician Data Query.
peritoneum (PAYR-ih-toh-NEE-um)
The tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen.
physical examination
An exam of the body to check for general signs of disease.
platelet (PLATE-let)
A tiny piece of a cell found in the blood that breaks off from a large cell found in the bone marrow. Platelets help wounds heal and prevent bleeding by forming blood clots. Also called thrombocyte.
polyp (PAH-lip)
A growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane.
polypectomy (PAH-lee-PEK-toh-mee)
Surgery to remove a polyp.
primary tumor
The original tumor.
prognosis (prog-NO-sis)
The likely outcome or course of a disease; the chance of recovery or recurrence.
protein (PRO-teen)
A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.
quality of life
The overall enjoyment of life. Many clinical trials assess the effects of cancer and its treatment on the quality of life. These studies measure aspects of an individual’s sense of well-being and ability to carry out various activities.
radiation (RAY-dee-AY-shun)
Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves. Common sources of radiation include radon gas, cosmic rays from outer space, medical x-rays, and energy given off by a radioisotope (unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down and becomes more stable).
radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and radiotherapy.
radioactive (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv)
Giving off radiation.
radioactive seed (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv...)
A small, radioactive pellet that is placed in or near a tumor. Cancer cells are killed by the energy given off as the radioactive material breaks down and becomes more stable.
radiofrequency ablation (RAY-dee-oh-FREE-kwen-see uh-BLAY-shun)
A procedure that uses radio waves to heat and destroy abnormal cells. The radio waves travel through electrodes (small devices that carry electricity). Radiofrequency ablation may be used to treat cancer and other conditions.
rectum (REK-tum)
The last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.
recur
To come back or to return.
recurrent cancer (ree-KER-ent KAN-ser)
Cancer that has recurred (come back), usually after a period of time during which the cancer could not be detected. The cancer may come back to the same place as the original (primary) tumor or to another place in the body. Also called recurrence.
red blood cell
A cell that carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called erythrocyte and RBC.
regional chemotherapy (REE-juh-nul KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with anticancer drugs directed to a specific area of the body.
resection (ree-SEK-shun)
A procedure that uses surgery to remove tissue or part or all of an organ.
risk factor
Something that may increase the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer include age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, certain eating habits, obesity, lack of exercise, exposure to radiation or other cancer-causing agents, and certain genetic changes.
side effect
A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.
sigmoid colon (SIG-moyd KO-lun)
The S-shaped section of the colon that connects to the rectum.
sigmoidoscope (sig-MOY-doh-skope)
A thin, tube-like instrument used to examine the inside of the colon. A sigmoidoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
sigmoidoscopy (sig-MOY-DOS-koh-pee)
Examination of the lower colon using a sigmoidoscope, inserted into the rectum. A sigmoidoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease. Also called proctosigmoidoscopy.
small intestine (... in-TES-tin)
The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine.
spinal column (SPY-nul KAH-lum)
The bones, muscles, tendons, and other tissues that reach from the base of the skull to the tailbone. The spinal column encloses the spinal cord and the fluid surrounding the spinal cord. Also called backbone, spine, and vertebral column.
stage
The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
stage 0 colorectal carcinoma in situ (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAR-sih-NOH-muh in SY-too)
Abnormal cells are found in the innermost lining of the colon and/or rectum. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue.
stage I colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer has spread beyond the innermost lining of the colon and/or rectum to the second and third layers and involves the inside wall of the colon and/or rectum, but it has not spread to the outer wall or outside the colon and/or rectum. Also called Dukes A colorectal cancer.
stage II colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer has spread outside the colon and/or rectum to nearby tissue, but it has not gone into the lymph nodes. Also called Dukes B colorectal cancer.
stage III colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Tumor cells have spread to organs and lymph nodes near the colon/rectum. Also called Dukes C colorectal cancer.
stage IV colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs. Also called Dukes D colorectal cancer.
staging (STAY-jing)
Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan the best treatment.
standard therapy (...THAYR-uh-pee)
In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used. Health care providers are obligated to provide patients with standard therapy. Also called best practice and standard of care.
stoma (STOH-muh)
A surgically created opening from an area inside the body to the outside.
stomach (STUH-muk)
An organ that is part of the digestive system. The stomach helps digest food by mixing it with digestive juices and churning it into a thin liquid.
stool
The material in a bowel movement. Stool is made up of food that was not digested, bacteria, mucus, and cells from the intestines. Also called feces.
surgery (SER-juh-ree)
A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.
symptom
An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
systemic chemotherapy (sis-TEH-mik KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with anticancer drugs that travel through the blood to cells all over the body.
tissue (TISH-oo)
A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
tumor (TOO-mer)
An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.
ulcerative colitis
Chronic inflammation of the colon that produces ulcers in its lining. This condition is marked by abdominal pain, cramps, and loose discharges of pus, blood, and mucus from the bowel.
vein (vayn)
A blood vessel that carries blood to the heart from tissues and organs in the body.
virtual colonoscopy (...KOH-luh-NOS-koh-pee)
A method under study to examine the colon by taking a series of x-rays (called a CT scan) and using a high-powered computer to reconstruct 2-D and 3-D pictures of the interior surfaces of the colon from these x-rays. The pictures can be saved, manipulated to better viewing angles, and reviewed after the procedure, even years later. Also called computed tomography colography.
vitamin (VY-tuh-min)
A nutrient that the body needs in small amounts to function and stay healthy. Sources of vitamins are plant and animal food products and dietary supplements. Some vitamins are made in the human body from food products. Vitamins are either fat-soluble (can dissolve in fats and oils) or water-soluble (can dissolve in water). Excess fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body’s fatty tissue, but excess water-soluble vitamins are removed in the urine. Examples are vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E.
vomit
To eject some or all of the contents of the stomach through the mouth.
white blood cell
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells. Also called leukocyte and WBC.
x-ray
A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses, x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays are used to treat cancer.
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Table of Links
1 | http://cancer.gov/clinicaltrials |
2 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=42420&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
3 | http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials |
4 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43664&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
5 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=37761&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
6 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=38379&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
7 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=38760&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
8 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43425&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
9 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/colon-and-rectal |
10 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/colon-and-rectal |
11 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/colorectal/Patient |
12 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/screening/colorectal/Patient |
13 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/UnderstandingCancer/genetesting |
14 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/cryosurgery |
15 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/overview |
16 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer |
17 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Detection/staging |
18 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/chemotherapy-and-you |
19 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/radiation-therapy-and-you |
20 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping |
21 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/support |
22 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary |
23 | http://dccps.cancer.gov/ocs/resources.html |
24 | https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/livehelp/welcome.asp |
25 | http://cancer.gov |
26 | https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/ncipubs |
27 | http://cancer.gov/clinical_trials |
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