• Home Literacy Activities
• Emerging Literacy Skills
• Association Between Family Literacy Activities and Children's Emerging Literacy, 1999
• References

Why is it that home activities such as reading to children, telling them stories, and singing with them help them learn? Research suggests that reading and storytelling stimulate the imagination, help to increase children's vocabularies, introduce them to components of stories (such as character, plot, action, and sequence), and provide them with information about the world around them (National Education Goals Panel 1997; Moss and Fawcett 1995). Singing songs probably also encourages a love of language and the rhythms of language (Glazer 1989). It also encourages phonological awareness (that is, awareness of the sounds and parts of language), which can be an important predictor of later literacy learning (Bryant et al. 1990; Maclean, Bryant, and Bradley 1987). Moreover, activities such as these are usually very child-centered, are conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and allow for a warm, positive interaction between children and their parents (Sonnen-schein, Brody, and Munsterman 1996; Strickland and Taylor 1989). Research suggests that the quality of parent-child interactions is important for children's development of literacy (Saracho 1997).

Goal One of the National Education Goals recognizes the importance of family-child engagement in literacy activities to children's learning and readiness for school. The goal suggests that for all children in America to start school ready to learn, parents need to devote time each day to teaching them.

This brief report presents information on the extent to which families are engaged in literacy activities with their 3- to 5-year-olds who are not yet enrolled in kindergarten. It also presents information on signs of emerging literacy, such as whether children recognize letters, can write their own names, or read or pretend to read. This information is shown for selected child, parent, and family characteristics. Some of these characteristics, such as low parent education, are often used to identify children as being at risk for school failure. The report examines changes in both home literacy activities that families engage in and signs of children's emerging literacy between 1993 and 1999. During this period, substantial research, policy, and media attention has been devoted to the importance of family involvement in children's learning.¹ The report then examines the association between home literacy activities and signs of emerging literacy in 1999.

The data used in this report are from the 1993 and 1999 National Household Education Surveys (NHES:1993 and NHES:1999). These data are based on reports of the parent most knowledgeable about the child, usually the child's mother. It is important to acknowledge that parents may overestimate both their involvement in home literacy activities and their children's skills because they recognize that such activities and skills are socially desirable. The tendency for respondents to give socially desirable responses is one source of nonsampling error in surveys.

Families have gotten the message about the importance of reading to their young children. Eighty-one percent of children ages 3 to 5 years in 1999 who were not yet enrolled in kindergarten were read to three or more times in the last week by a family member (table 1). Many families are also engaging in other literacy activities with their 3- to 5-year-old children. Fifty percent of children ages 3 to 5 years not yet in kindergarten were told a story three or more times in the last week by a family member. Sixty-four percent were taught letters, words, or numbers frequently by their families. Nearly half (49 percent) were taught songs or music three or more times in the last week, and more than a third (39 percent) did arts and crafts with their families three or more times in the last week. More than a third (36 percent) of preschool 3- to 5-year-olds visited the library in the last month with a family member. These percentages show that many families are actively involved in helping their young children learn.

The percentage of preschool-aged children who are read to, told stories, or engage in other literacy activities with their families varies by characteristics of the children, their parents, and their families. For example, 3-year-olds were more likely than 4-year-olds or 5-year-olds to have been taught songs or music three or more times in the last week by their families (57 percent of 3-year-olds compared to 43 percent of 4-year-olds and 38 percent of 5-year-olds) (table 1). However, they were less likely than 4- and 5-year-olds to have visited the library with their families in the last month (33 percent, vs. 39 and 41 percent, respectively).

There are also differences in families' engagement in literacy activities with their children by the children's race and ethnicity. Hispanic children and black, non-Hispanic children were less likely than white, non-Hispanic children to have been read to by (61 percent and 71 percent vs. 89 percent), told stories by (40 percent and 45 percent vs. 53 percent), or done arts and crafts with (32 percent and 28 percent vs. 44 percent) their families three or more times in the last week. There are no statistically significant differences, however, between black, non-Hispanic children and white, non-Hispanic children in the proportion who were taught letters, words, or numbers three or more times in the last week or who visited the library in the last month with their families. Hispanic children, though, are significantly less likely than either white, non-Hispanic or black, non-Hispanic children to have done these activities that frequently with their families. For example, 25 percent of Hispanic children visited the library in the past month with their families compared to 39 percent of white non-Hispanic children and 35 percent of black, non-Hispanic children.

A number of risk factors believed to have an impact on the development of literacy skills are shown in table 1. These include having a mother whose home language is other than English, having a mother with less than a high school education, living with fewer than two parents, living in a family with an income below the poverty threshold, and having a race/ethnicity other than white, non-Hispanic. Having a minority race/ethnicity is not a risk factor in the same sense as poverty or the other risk factors that can have a direct impact on children's development and learning. However, it remains the case that, on average, minorities in the United States have fewer opportunities and are faced with greater obstacles than are nonminorities. These realities of American life place minorities at educational risk.

Generally, the findings in this report show that children with one or more of these risk factors are less likely than other children to have frequently engaged in literacy activities with their families. This is especially true for reading to children, telling them stories, doing arts and crafts with them, and visiting the library with them. The differences between those at risk and those not at risk are smaller for teaching children letters, words, or numbers and teaching them songs or music. For example, 69 percent of children living in families with incomes below the poverty threshold were read to three or more times in the last week compared to 85 percent of children living above poverty. But children living in families with incomes below the poverty threshold were just as likely as children not living in poverty to have been taught songs or music three or more times in the last week (49 percent each). Likewise, 61 percent of children whose mothers had less than a high school education were read to three or more times in the last week compared to over 90 percent of children whose mothers' highest education was college graduate or graduate or professional school.

With the exception of being taught songs or music, children with multiple risk factors are less likely than those with none or only one risk factor to engage in literacy activities frequently with their families. Twenty-seven percent of children with two or more risk factors had visited a library in the past month compared to 44 percent of children with no risk factors. Sixty-six percent of children with two or more risk factors were read to three or more times in the last week compared to 91 percent of children with no risk factors. Even though children with multiple risks are less likely than other children to be read to frequently, it is noteworthy that a majority of them are being read to frequently by their families. Thus, even families facing difficult circumstances are making an effort to help their children learn.

Table 1.-Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten who have participated in home literacy activities with a family member three or more times in the past week, by selected child and family characteristics: 1993 and 1999

Table 1.-Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten who have participated in home literacy activities with a family member three or more times in the past week, by selected child and family characteristics: 1993 and 1999-continued

In general, children in 1999 are more likely than those in 1993 to engage in literacy activities with family members. The one exception is that they are no more likely than their 1993 counterparts to have visited a library in the past month with a family member. They are more likely than children in 1993, however, to have been read to (81 percent vs. 78 percent), told a story (50 percent vs. 43 percent), and taught letters, words, or numbers (64 percent vs. 58 percent) three or more times in the last week (table 1). They are also more likely than children in 1993 to have been taught songs or music (49 percent vs. 41 percent) and to have done arts and crafts with a family member (39 percent vs. 34 percent) three or more times in the last week.

The vast majority of statistically significant changes observed between 1993 and 1999 are for those children who would generally be considered less at risk for school failure. That is, most of the increases in literacy activities are for white, non-Hispanic children from two-parent households, with family incomes above the poverty threshold, and with mothers who speak English at home. For example, the percentage of white, non-Hispanic children who were read to three or more times in the last week increased from 85 percent in 1993 to 89 percent in 1999. Similarly, the percentage who were taught letters, words, or numbers three or more times in the last week increased from 58 percent in 1993 to 65 percent in 1999. Among black, non-Hispanic children, the percentage who were read to frequently appears to have risen from 66 percent in 1993 to 71 percent in 1999. This difference, however, is not statistically significant. Similarly, the percentage who were taught letters, words, or numbers three or more times in the last week appears to have risen from 63 percent in 1993 to 68 percent in 1999. Again, however, this change is not statistically significant. There are also no statistically significant increases in families' engagement in literacy activities for children with two or more risk factors. For example, 64 percent of children in 1993 with two or more risk factors were read to three or more times in the last week as were 66 percent of such children in 1999.

A substantial proportion of children ages 3 to 5 years who are not yet enrolled in kindergarten show signs of emerging literacy (table 2). Twenty-four percent already recognize all the letters of the alphabet, 57 percent can count to 20 or higher, 51 percent can write their own names, and 74 percent either read or pretend to read storybooks. Most children this age, of course, only pretend to read. Only 3 percent of 3- to 5-year-olds not yet in kindergarten actually read. Overall, 39 percent of 3- to 5-year-olds not yet in kindergarten are reported to have at least three of these four skills.

Not surprisingly, older children are more likely than younger ones to show signs of emerging literacy. Fifteen percent of 3-year-olds not enrolled in kindergarten recognize all the letters of the alphabet compared to 44 percent of 5-year-olds not enrolled in kindergarten (table 2). Similarly, 24 percent of 3-year-olds can write their own names compared to 87 percent of 5-year-olds.

There are some differences in the percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children who show signs of emerging literacy by the children's race and ethnicity. Hispanic children are significantly less likely than non-Hispanic children to recognize all the letters of the alphabet. Fourteen percent of Hispanic children can do so compared with 25 percent of white, non-Hispanic; 25 percent of black, non-Hispanic; and 30 percent of children of some other race or ethnicity. Hispanic children are also much less likely than non-Hispanic children to be able to count to 20 or higher. Forty-one percent of Hispanic children can do so compared to 60 percent of white, non-Hispanic children; 60 percent of black, non-Hispanic children; and 59 percent of children of some other race or ethnicity. Black, non-Hispanic children are less likely than white, non-Hispanic children to read or to pretend to read (66 percent vs. 79 percent), but they are as likely as white, non-Hispanic children to recognize all the letters of the alphabet and to be able to count to 20 or higher.

Young children living in families with incomes below the poverty threshold are less likely than other children to show signs of emerging literacy. Ten percent of 3- to 5-year-old children living in poverty recognize all the letters of the alphabet compared to 28 percent of nonpoor children. Similarly, 39 percent of children living in poverty can count to 20 or higher compared to 62 percent of nonpoor children. Nineteen percent of poor children show three or more signs of emerging literacy compared to 45 percent of nonpoor children. Likewise, children with two or more educational risk factors are less likely than other children to show signs of emerging literacy. Fifteen percent of children with two or more risk factors recognize all the letters of the alphabet compared to 29 percent of children with no risk factors. Similarly, 26 percent of children with two or more risk factors show at least three signs of emerging literacy compared to 47 percent of children with no risk factors.

Table 2.-Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten with specific reported school readiness skills, by selected child and family characteristics: 1993 and 1999

¹ Excludes 86 cases in 1993 and 106 cases in 1999 who did not have a mother (birth, adoptive, step, or foster) residing in their household and also did not have a female respondent on the telephone.

² Risk factors are defined as having a race/ethnicity other than white, non-Hispanic; mother's home language is other than English; mother's highest education is less than high school; family type is none or one parent in the household; and poverty status is below the poverty threshold.

³ Includes telling connected stories when pretending to read and reading actual words.

NOTE: Because of rounding, numbers of children may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey (NHES), "School Readiness Parent Interview," 1993, and "Parent Interview," 1999.

Changes in signs of emerging literacy, 1993 to 1999

According to parental reports, 3- to 5-year-old children not yet in kindergarten in 1999 are more likely than their 1993 counterparts to be able to recognize all the letters of the alphabet (24 percent vs. 21 percent) and to be able to count to 20 or higher (57 percent vs. 52 percent) (table 2). Children in 1999 are also more likely than children in 1993 to have three or four literacy skills (39 percent vs. 35 per-cent). However, children in 1999 are no more likely than their 1993 counterparts to be able to write their own names, or to read or pretend to read.

As with families' engagement in literacy activities, the majority of statistically significant changes observed between 1993 and 1999 are for children who are less at risk for school failure. For example, among nonpoor children the percentage who recognized all the letters of the alphabet increased from 24 percent in 1993 to 28 percent in 1999. Similarly, the percentage of nonpoor children who could count to 20 or higher increased from 57 percent in 1993 to 62 percent in 1999. Overall, the percentage of nonpoor children who showed at least three of the four signs of emerging literacy increased from 40 percent in 1993 to 45 percent in 1999. The percentage of poor children exhibiting these emerging literacy signs did not increase at all between 1993 and 1999. Similarly, children in 1999 whose mothers' home language was English were more likely than their 1993 counterparts to recognize all the letters of the alphabet , to count to 20 or higher , to read or pretend to read , and to show at least three of the four literacy skills . On the other hand, children in 1999 whose mothers spoke a language other than English at home were no more likely than their 1993 counterparts to recognize all the letters of the alphabet , to count to 20, to read or pretend to read, or to show three or more emerging literacy skills .

Association Between Family Literacy Activities and Children's Emerging Literacy, 1999²

Families are helping their children prepare for school by engaging in literacy activities with them at home. In 1999, 26 percent of children who were read to three or more times in the last week by a family member recognized all the letters of the alphabet compared to 14 percent of children read to less frequently (table 3). Children who were read to frequently are also more likely than those who were not to count to 20 or higher (60 percent vs. 44 percent), to write their own names (54 percent vs. 40 percent), and to read or pretend to read (77 percent vs. 57 percent). Children who were read to frequently are nearly twice as likely as other children to show three or more skills associated with emerging literacy (42 percent vs. 24 percent).

As other researchers have found, however, it is not only being read to that helps children learn. Children who were told stories three or more times in the last week are also more likely than those who were not to recognize all the letters of the alphabet (28 percent vs. 20 percent), to count to 20 or higher (60 percent vs. 54 percent), and to read or pretend to read (79 percent vs. 68 percent). They are also more likely to be able to write their own names (54 percent vs. 49 percent), though the difference is not very large.³ Children who were told stories three or more times in the last week are also more likely than those who were not to show at least three signs of emerging literacy (44 percent vs. 34 percent), though the differences between those who were told stories often and those who were not are not as dramatic as they are for children who were read to frequently and those who were not.

Children whose families taught them letters, words, or numbers three or more times in the last week or who visited the library with their families in the last month are also more likely than other children to show signs of emerging literacy. Forty-three percent of children whose families taught them letters, words, or numbers three or more times in the last week show at least three of the four signs of emerging literacy compared to 31 percent of children whose families taught them letters, words, or numbers less frequently or not at all. Similarly, 49 percent of children whose families took them to the library at least once in the past month show three or more signs of emerging literacy compared to 33 percent of children whose families did not take them to the library in the past month.

The results in table 3 suggest that teaching children songs or music is generally not associated with showing signs of emerging literacy. Only two associations are statistically significant. The first is the association between teaching songs or music and the children being able to write their names.⁴ However, the association is opposite of what might be expected. The data suggest that children whose parents taught them songs or music three or more times in the last week are less likely to be able to write their own names than children who were taught songs or music less frequently (47 percent vs. 55 percent). The second is the association between teaching children songs or music and the children reading or pretending to read. Here the association is significant and in the expected direction. Seventy-six percent of children whose families taught them songs or music three or more times in the last week read or pretend to read compared to 71 percent of other children. Recall that table 1 showed that younger children are more likely than older children to be taught songs or music. Similarly, table 2 showed that younger children are less likely than older children to show each of the signs of emerging literacy, though the difference was smallest for reading and pretending to read. Thus, the generally weak association between teaching songs or music and signs of emerging literacy may be due to the overrepresentation of younger children among those who are taught songs or music three or more times in the last week. That is, whereas younger children are more likely than older children to be taught songs or music frequently, they are less likely to show signs of emerging literacy. It is possible that teaching songs and music fosters emerging literacy skills, but at a gradual pace. Alternatively, such activities may foster skills that are not measured in this report, but that are, nevertheless, important to children's healthy development.

Table 3.-Percentage of 3- to 5-year-old children not yet enrolled in kindergarten with specific reported school readiness skills, by number of home literacy activities conducted in the past week: 1999

¹Refers to visiting a library at least once in the past month. ²Types of literacy activities include reading to the child; telling a story; teaching letters, words, or numbers; teaching songs or music; and doing arts or crafts (each three or more times in the past week) and visiting a library (in the past month).

NOTE: Because of rounding, numbers of children may not add to totals.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey (NHES), "Parent Interview," 1999.

Doing arts and crafts with children frequently, like reading to them and telling them stories, is associated with acquiring literacy skills. For example, 28 percent of children whose families did arts and crafts with them three or more times in the last week recognize all the letters of the alphabet compared to 21 percent of children whose families did arts and crafts with them less frequently or not at all. Similarly, 42 percent of children whose families did arts and crafts with them three or more times in the last week show at least three signs of emerging literacy compared to 37 percent of children whose families did arts and crafts less frequently with them in the last week. Doing arts and crafts with children may stimulate literacy through the extended conversations that often occur during such activities (Snow 1991; Hall and Robinson 1995).

Children whose families engage in several different types of literacy activities with them may be more likely than other children to show multiple signs of emerging literacy. This hypothesis is, in fact, borne out. Forty-three percent of children whose families engaged in three or more types of literacy activities with them in the last week show three or more signs of emerging literacy compared to 30 percent of children whose families shared fewer activities with them.

Taken together, the results in table 3 are strong evidence that children whose families are engaged in literacy activities with them are more likely than other children to show each of the signs of emerging literacy and to show three or more such signs. The one exception is children whose families taught them songs or music frequently. As noted earlier, the generally weak association does not mean that teaching songs and music is unimportant to children. The weak association may be due to the fact that younger children are more likely than older children to be taught songs and music and are also less likely to show signs of emerging literacy.

Footnotes

¹ For example, the National Education Goals Panel began releasing annual reports in 1990. Every year with the release of these reports, media attention is devoted to the importance of families being active participants in their children's learning and of their reading to their young children. In addition, numerous programs devoted to family literacy, including the U.S. Department of Education's Even Start program, were initiated in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Saracho 1997).

² The relationships between activities and skills discussed in this section were also found to be significant in the 1993 data, except where noted.

³This difference was not statistically significant in the 1993 data.

⁴ This difference was not statistically significant in the 1993 data.

References

Bryant, P.E., Maclean, M., Bradley, L., and Crossland, J. (1990). Rhyme and Alliteration, Phoneme Detection, and Learning to Read. Developmental Psychology,26: 429-438.

Glazer, S.M. (1989). Oral Language and Literacy. In D.S. Strickland and L.M. Morrow (Eds.), Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read and Write (pp. 16-26). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Hall, N., and Robinson, A. (1995). Exploring Writing and Play in the Early Years. London: Fulton.

Maclean, M., Bryant, P., and Bradley, L. (1987). Rhymes, Nursery Rhymes, and Reading in Early Childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,33: 255-281.

Moss, B., and Fawcett, G. (1995). Bringing the Curriculum of the World of the Home to the School. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties,11: 247-256.

National Education Goals Panel. (1997). Special Early Childhood Report, 1997 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Saracho, O.N. (1997). Perspectives on Family Literacy. Early Child Development and Care , 127-128: 3-11.

Snow, C. (1991). The Theoretical Basis for Relationships Between Language and Literacy in Development. Journal of Research in Childhood Education,6: 5-10.

Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., and Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Sonnenschein, S., Brody, G., and Munsterman, K. (1996). The Influence of Family Beliefs and Practices on Children's Early Reading Development. In L. Baker, P. Afferbach, and D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing Engaged Readers in School and Home Communities (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Strickland, D.S., and Taylor, D. (1989). Family Storybook Reading: Implications for Children, Families and Curriculum. In D.S. Strickland and L.M. Morrow (Eds.), Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read and Write (pp. 27-34). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Teale, W.H., and Sulzby, E. (1989). Emergent Literacy: New Perspectives. In D.S. Strickland and L.M. Morrow (Eds.), Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read and Write (pp. 1-9). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Data sources: The NCES National Household Education Survey (NHES), "School Readiness Parent Interview", 1993, and "Parent Interview," 1999. For technical information, see the complete report: Nord, C.W., Lennon, J., Liu, B., and Chandler, K. (1999). Home Literacy Activities and Signs of Children's Emerging Literacy: 1993 and 1999 (NCES 2000-026). For additional details on survey methodology, see Brick, J.M., Tubbs, E., Collins, M.A., and Nolin, M.J. (1997). Unit and Item Response, Weighting, and Imputation Procedures in the 1993 National Household Education Survey (NHES:93) (NCES 97-05). Nolin, M.J., Montaquila, J., Nicchitta, P., Kim, K., Kleiner, B., and Lennon, J. (forthcoming). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Methodology Report (NCES 2000-078). Author affiliations: C.W. Nord, J. Lennon, and B. Lui, Westat; and K. Chandler, NCES. For questions about content, contact Kathryn Chandler (kathryn.chandler@ed.gov). To obtain the complete report (NCES 2000-026), call the toll-free ED Pubs number (877-433-7827) or visit the NCES Web Site (http://nces.ed.gov) .