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2007 National DNA Day Online Chatroom TranscriptThe 2007 National DNA Day Moderated Chat was held on Wednesday, April 25th, 2007 from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. Eastern. NHGRI Director Francis Collins and genomics experts from across the institute took questions from students, teachers and the general public on topics ranging from basic genomic research, to the genetic basis of disease, to ethical questions about genetic privacy. Give Us Your Feedback on National DNA Day Activities!
Q: Brittany: What are the pros and cons of getting genetic tests? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Choosing to have or not to have genetic testing is a personal one. For example, a person who has a family history of early onset breast cancer may wish to have genetic testing to learn whether he or she has inherited a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene that greatly increases their risk for developing breast and other cancers so that they can take preventive actions. Another person in the same family may not wish to know if he/she has inherited the gene because of concerns about insurance and employment discrimination. When a person is considering having genetic testing, they can seek genetic counseling with certified genetic counselors, nurses and medical geneticists to learn about all of the reasons to have or not to have a genetic test. Q: Lynn Wilson, Incarnate Word Academy: I am just testing to see if our students will be able to access this. Thank You! A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes! Good morning! We are all here ready to answer your questions! Q: carmen, NY: How are proteins made? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Proteins are made using the DNA as a template. Basically, messenger RNA or mRNA is made by a molecule known as RNA Polymerase using the DNA template in the nucleus of the cell. Depending on the gene, sometimes the mRNA may have to be modified and certain portions of the message RNA are removed or spliced. The mRNA is then transported outside the nucleus to the cytoplasm where the ribosomes attach to the mRNA. The ribosomes interact with the Transfer RNA or tRNA molecules that carry the amino acids to assemble the proteins by adding the individual amino acids and linking the amino acids each other. Once all the amino acids are added, we have a complete protein. Q: Annie, Cape Elizabeth, ME: What's your favorite DNA joke? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: What did one DNA helix to the other DNA helix?? "Hey, do these genes make me look fat?" Q: Audery: How does a baby get an extra copy of chromosome 21? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are several ways a baby can get an extra chromosome number 21. Most commonly, at the time of conception, there are two number 21 chromosomes in either the egg or the sperm. This is a sporadic event. Another way occurs after conception when an error occurs in cell division creating a cell line with an extra chromosome number 21. This is called mosaic trisomy 21. A third way is when one of the parents carries a chromosome rearrangement called a translocation that involves chromosome number 21. Q: Lymiracle Hill, Hogdson Vo-Tech.: How are DNA and RNA related? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA is used as template for the messenger RNA or mRNA which is then used as the template for the proteins. In other words, DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into proteins. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: How many possible genes are known? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: As far as we know now, the latest analysis shows about 20,000 genes in the human genome. Q: Savannah P'Poole Lyon Co. Middle School, Kentucky: What are your work surroundings like? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The work surroundings here definitely depend on the kind of work you do. Some people at the National Human Genome Research Institute work in labs, others work in offices, I've been spending quite a bit of time lately in classrooms. The diversity of opportunities in a field like genetics makes the workplace a great place to be. Q: kelsey martin, kentucky: Do you get to spend time with your family at times, or are you alwasys being called out to work? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I do get to spend time with my family. Although there are times when things are very busy, I try to balance my work and family time. It is very important to balance both family and work. Q: Thomas Muntaner, St. Ignacious Prep: Do any current gene therapy treatments cure a genetic disorder, or do they only temporarily treat the person? If we are not able to cure a disorder with gene therapy now, are we close to achieving a cure through gene therapy? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are currently no gene therapy treatments available clinically that can cure a genetic disorder. There are some gene therapies that are in the research phases, and as more is being learned about the genetic basis of diseases, there is hope that targeted gene therapy will be available in the not to distant future. Q: Mango Bristol: Why is DNA Day on April 25th? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a great question! DNA Day falls every year on April 25 because it marks the anniversary of the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 and the description of the structure of the double helix by Watson and Crick in 1953. Q: kelsey martin, kentucky: Do you get to spend time with your family at times, or are you alwasys being called out to work? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I do try to balance my work and family time. Although things get busy, I always try to make time for my family and friends. Q: Henry: What's your favorite gene in a cell? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I can't really say I have a favorite gene. There are so many that are pretty cool like the gene for eye color or the gene for hemoglobin. At this time, there are about 20,000 to choosde from so I can't say there is a shortage of cool ones. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: Is having twins a genetic trait? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, having twins can run in families. Having twins can be due to having a trait for multiple ovulation, or a trait for identical twins. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: Are scientists close to cloning a person? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: No. Scientists have successfully cloned a sheep, dog, and cat, but to our knowledge, no effort has been made to clone a human. It would be technically very difficult and is quite improbable that it would happen any time soon.
Q: Henry: What's your favorite gene in a cell? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I can't say that I have a favorite gene. There are several cool ones like the one for eye color or the one for hemoglobin. There are more than 20,000 to choose which makes the choosing just one cool gene pretty hard. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: How much DNA do we have in our body? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: There are 3 billion base pairs in every cell of our body (except red blood cells and lens cells). If you were to uncoil one strand of DNA from one of your cells, it would stretch 6 feet long! Q: Chase Helschien Marisa Beck: How soon will it be until we can alter the DNA of an unborn child in the womb? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Altering anyone's DNA has ethical, moral and legal implications, which will have to be addressed first before any clinical application to altering DNA in the womb can take place. Q: : Why are people different colors? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Because of the variation in our genomes, some of us produce varying amounts of pigment proteins. These proteins are responsible for the various colors of people. Q: Katherine Casabar, from Westview High School: Are there Y-linked traits and/or disorders/diseases in existence? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: One example of a Y-linked disorder is the chromosomal disorder, 47,XYY. Q: akbar Mondal: Is it possible to change a gene if you are full grown man/woman and will it affect that person phenotype? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: There are changes that naturally occur in your DNA throughout your life. Many of these changes won't affect your phenotype, but some certainly will. There is a field of gene therapy that is attempting to determine how to correct genetic 'mistakes' but this field is still very preliminary. Q: Katie and Kelsey: How do you choose whose DNA to use for the human genome? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Many individuals from upstate New York were selected from a newspaper ad to donate a sample of their DNA to the Human Genome Project. DNA for the Genome project was collected from a pool of all of the samples, so it's actually unknown whose specific DNA was used. Q: Mitch Philadelphia, MS: Can DNA repair itself? If so, how and how long would it take? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA has mechanisms that allow it to repair itself when it breaks and or mistakes occur. Most of these repair mechanisms are happen very quickly. Although these mechanisms are very accurate and quick if the DNA has too many breaks or mistakes, the cell is unable to repair them. This inability to correct the mistakes can result in problems or even cell death. Q: Cassie, Alden: Is suicide genetic? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Suicide may happen when a person has a mental condition such as manic depression. Mental conditions like manic depressive illness can be inherited in some families. If you have a concern about whether mental illness and suicide are inherited in your family, you can seek further information from a genetic counselor, genetic nurse or medical geneticist. Q: Katie Krueger, St. Ignacious Prep: What field of genetics would you recommend someone to study at this time? Is there a field that is advancing more quickly than others currently? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The great thing about the field of genetics is how diverse it is. There are opportunities related to molecular biology, computer science, ethics, law, sociology, politics, and many other fields. I would recommend considering the things you are interested in and finding how those interests could be integrated into the field. Q: Jacob and Mark, Sharon PA: Why is Down syndrome more evident in births where the mother is older? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Babies with Down syndrome are more evident when the mother is older because of an error that occurs during formation of the egg such that it has two number 21 chromosomes. At fertilization, then, there are three number 21 chromosomes present in the baby - two from the mother and one from the father. Q: Tessa Turner, spanish river high.: With DNA testing, can you find out if your infant would have a chance of being obese? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Currently, DNA testing is not available clinically to determine whether a child has an increased chance of being obese. Q: Amanda Bakouni: Why is DNA so famous? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA is such a famous molecule because it holds the instructions for creating an entire organism. There is an enormous amount of information encoded in a single DNA molecule, and without it, there would be no next generation of offspring, whether it be humans, plants, animals, or even bacteria. Q: Shannon: Who came up with the name DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The chemical that is called DNA was discovered by Friedrich Miescher, a Swiss biologist, who isolated it from white blood cells in 1869. He called it nuclein, which is why the molecule is called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. Q: brandi boca raton florida: Do you enjoy what you do? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, I do! I am an advanced practice nurse in genetics and a board certified genetic counselor. For the past 20 years I have provided clinical genetic counseling and education to patients and families in a rural genetics clinic. For the past two years I have been fortunate to work at the National Human Genome Research Institute as a Health Educator, overseeing projects that translate new genetic information and discoveries to the public. Q: Jay, OHS: With the development of the the haplotype map, how will disease and health in humans be affected? Will this research better enable the discoveries of cures, or why some occur? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: We hope that the haplotype map will enable us to recognize how the variation in different human genomes are related to a human's predispoistions to disorders. Understanding why some people are more susceptible to diseases than others will assist us in better diagnosis and cures.
Q: Serena Yee, St. Ignacious Prep: 4. Because the judicial system often resorts to DNA as concrete evidence, do you believe the public is aware of the potential errors and restrictions on DNA testing? A: Vence Bonham, J.D.: I think the public is just learning the limitations and the power of DNA testing. For many their first knowledge of the role of DNA indentfication was in the criminal justice system. We will all continue to learn about potential errors in DNA Testing. One controversial area is the abiity to profile what a person looks like based upon DNA information. Q: Mike Hunt, From Coconut Creek, FL: Who thought of DNA day? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: National DNA Day began in 2003 as a celebration launched by the National Human Genome Research Institute to mark the completion of the Human Genome Project, and as part of the 50th anniversary of Watson and Crick's description of DNA. It was such an exciting and momentous occasion in science that the genetic research field wanted to create an entire day to celebrate each year. Q: Karalyn: How many genetic disorders can currently be identified in unborn children? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are easily 100 genetic disorders that can be identified in unborn children and that number is growing every year as more genetic tests become available. Q: kyle carrilio, florida: Is it possible to genetically alter animals to combine them, for example a human and a horse to make them one new, altered species? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The answer to your question is no, it's not possible to combine two species that are as unrelated as a human and a horse. However, breeders have created combinations, such as a horse and donkey, to create a mule (though the mule is then not fertile, and therefore does not result in a new species). Q: Matt Spanish River: Do all people have the same amount of genes? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, all humans have approximately 20,000 genes in each of their cells. Q: Jacob; Crooms Academy; Sanford, Florida: If a fetus has Down syndrome can it be cured before it is born? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: A fetus with Down syndrome has an extra chromosome number 21 in all or most of its body cells. Down syndrome cannot currently be cured before a baby is born. Q: Ms. Bradbury: What does DNA stand for? I seem to have forgotten since college. A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Q: Sarah Holmes- Liberty MO: What ideas do you have for motivating students to pursue a career in the field of science, especially life sciences? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are so many cool things happening in science, especially in genomics. There are several interactive activities being created by many universities and governmental agencies that students can interact with to get an idea of the breadth the careers and opportunities in science. In addition, I think that having people who are in the fields speak to students is always helpful. During DNA Day, we send several speakers to a variety of schools that are vibrant and enthusiastic about there work. This helps make it seem real and the careers accessible. I would also suggest having the students check out the LifeWorks database on the Office of Science Education at the National Institutes of Health.
Q: Amanda: if you get a sex change, can it affect your DNA? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: No. If a person has a sex change, external organs and hormonal balances are altered, but not the person's DNA. Q: Rachel Besser and Lauren Chieffo: Do identical twins have identical DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, identical twins have the exact same DNA as each other. Q: Anthony Abatecola: Do homosexual people have gene that says they will be homosexual? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: No one knows for sure yet.
Q: Jordan, PMWHS: Does DNA control your emotions? If so can they be changed permanently? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Certainly there are genetic aspects to many diagnosable mental health conditions that may involve people's emotions. Right now, there are no permanent, genetic ways to change emotions. Mental health conditions are frequently treated with pharmaceutical drugs and talk therapy. Q: george (crooms AOIT): What are the best university for studying biology or medical science? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Honestly, there are numerous excellent institutions for studying biology. It's important to find the right institution for you, whether it be large or small, public or private. You might want to talk to a guidance counselor to discuss different options that are right for you. Q: RYAN C., QUEENSBURY, NEW YORK: Do you think that there are many more genetic diseases than we know of right now? If so, are there any processes that you want to work with to get to find this out? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are probably more genetic disorders that have yet to be discovered. With the sequencing of the human genome and a better understanding of the genome, we have better tools that can help us discover those disorders. In addition, we are also looking at the sequences of other organisms to help us understand the human genome. Q: Ben Tolkin, Newton MA: How do sickle cells and altered hemoglobin provide protection against malaria? Why malaria and not other viruses? Keep up the good work! A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: It has to do with how malaria is passed on. The mosquito that infects individuals with Malaria is not very effective in passing on the disease when the cells are in the shape of a "half-moon" (sickle). Q: swipper.: im 100% african american, but for some odd reason, my skin is so light. can you tell me why? please. A: Vence Bonham, J.D.: That is a great question. African American is a social group. Race is a social construct that is a blurry correlation with genetic variation in populations. People who self identify as African American can have a very diverse ancestral background. There is signficant diversity in the ancestral background of people who self identify as African American. Q: Bobby Losoya, St. Ignacious Prep: If only 2% of the genome is coding DNA, what purpose do you think the majority of the "junk DNA" in our bodies have? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: You are correct that about 2% of our genome encodes proteins, which have direct roles in how cells and tissues function. However, another important function of the genome is in turning these coding genes on and off, and in organizing the genome in cells. We currently believe that some, if not most, of the remaining DNA is involved in these processes. To address this, we are comparing our genome to the genomes of other animals (for example mouse and dog) to identify non-coding regions that are similar. We think that these will be very important for genome function! Q: tyler hf: Why is there a DNA Day? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA day is the annual celebration of the completion of the Human Genome Project, and of the description of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick. Q: Samantha, Sam, Spanish River Community High School, FL: Can doctors tell what genes I have before I am born? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are some genetic tests that can be done during pregnancy for specific genetic conditions such as cystic fibrosis. But there is currently not a genetic test that can identify all of a person's genes before they are born. Q: Daniel from Westview High School: Up to how long after someone dies can a DNA sample be taken from their body? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA is chemical and as long as it is still intact and not degraded, it can be isolated. For example, the DNA from the wolly mammoth was 18,000 years old and was isolated. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: How does DNA affect someone's looks? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The DNA you inherit from your parents includes all of the information for eye color, hair color, and other physical traits. It explains why you look a little like your mom, and a little like your dad, but not exactly like either one of them. Q: Mike Roch, from boca Raton FL: How many genetic disorders are there in total? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: We are finding more and more that every disease has a genetic component, so it is not possible to know the total number at present. Q: Heather, Alden: What is DNA profiling and banking? should i consider it and when? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: There are many levels at which your DNA can be tested. A "whole genome sequence" would identify all of the genes you have, but we don't know the function of most of these genes. Genetic banking usually refers to a collection of blood specimens for research. DNA profiling and banking aren't yet available to the public. At this point in your life, unless you have a specific health condition where knowing more about your genetics might help with diagnosis or treatment, genetic testing should be unnecessary. Q: Shi-thead Mohammed, Coconut Creek: Is D.N.A. day a national holiday? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: No, we are all still hard at work for this year's DNA day. Though it may not be an official holiday, we are excited to see DNA day recognized by students and teachers across the nation. Q: Shivani, Uni of Leicester, UK: In general, what are your views on how society as a whole has reacted to the human genome project? A: Vence Bonham, J.D.: I think it is still early to tell. As you know the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. We are only beginning to understand the power of the information generated from the project to improve health and how it will impact society. Q: Gene, CA: Wasn't it Phoebus Levine in 1929 who came up with the name DNA. A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Phoebus Levine was a physician and biochemist at Rockefeller University who figured out the components that make up DNA, including the four types of bases -- adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine -- as well the sugar deoxyribose and a phosphate group in its helical backbone. Q: Someone In Kansas: What is an X chromosome? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The X chromosome is one of the two sex chromosomes in humans. Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome. The X chromosome carries about 1000 genes and some of these are related to various disorders( known as X-linked disorders). Q: Dominick Steele: What does dystonia do? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Dystonia is a condition that affects a person's movements and motor skills. In some families, dystonia can happen as part of a hereditary trait, i.e. something that is passed on from generation to generation. Q: Lauren from Londizzle: Has anyone found any correlation between genetics and intelligence? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: This is a very good, but difficult, question. There have been studies performed that try to correlate genetic background and intelligence. However, these studies should be interpreted very carefully. Intelligence is most likely to be a complex trait, which may involve many different genetic and environmental factors. In practical terms, this means that these studies are very difficult. As our ability to study complex traits improves, such studies may be more useful and informative. Q: Max HF: How long until geneticists can decode the human genome. A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: We successfully decoded the human genome in 2003, both ahead of schedule and under budget! Q: Dominic, Maryland: Do genetic tests give false reassurance? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Some genetic tests may give false reassurance. For example, if a person has a strong family history of early onset colon cancer and learns that there is an inherited gene called HNPCC that is being inherited in the family, he or she may choose to have testing. If he/she tests negative for the HNPCC gene, that person hmay believe that they are no longer at risk for colon cancer, when in fact, they have the average person's risk, so can still get colon cancer, though the risk is greatly reduced. Q: Rachel Besser and Lauren Chieffo: Do you think it is ethical to use family's genetic information in crime cases? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: That's a great question! I don't know. It would really depend how the investigators accessed the family's genetic information. For instance, if they had a court order/warrant for the sample, you would hope there was adequate judicial review and probable cause. However, it would get even tricker if a family member's DNA were in a criminal data bank, or worse, accessed without their knowledge.
Q: imani,Lindsay,Kishell: Does bone marrow have DNA? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, bone marrow does have DNA. All cells of the body, except red blood cells, have DNA. Q: ryan anderson: is it possable to have bad genes? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: I'm not sure what you mean by "bad genes." There are genetic alterations that can cause disease. I doubt that folks with a serious genetic disease think of these alterations as "good." Q: Phillip, Florida: How close are you to a cure for cancer? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: There is a lot of research going on to look at how we can better treat cancer and hopefully one day cure cancer. There are many different types of cancer and we are better at treating some types of cancer versus others. For example, we are better are at treating cancer in the uterus versus cancer in the pancreas. Q: Sharon, Westview Learning Center: Why does mitosis occur? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: In order for your body to grow, you have to increase the number of cells in your body which requires that your cells to go through mitosis. In addition, you have to replace the cells that are constantly dying, this also requires that mitosis occur. Q: Jenn, Pasadena, MD: DNA Day's Finally Here!!! DNA Day! cheer, cheer, cheer! DNA day fun, fun, fun! DNA day is for everyone!!! A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Thanks Jenn! We are very excited to be here too! DNA day is a great day every April 25th! Q: Spencer Westview High: How long does it take to get the DNA from a crime scene analyzed? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Ideally, DNA should be processed quickly but the amount of time to analayze the DNA can be dependent upon the individual labs and police departments that collect the samples and the type of analysis. Q: V-SHAL, Sanford, FL: What's your favorite gene? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Funny question! Personally, my favorite gene makes a protein called glycyl-tRNA synthetase. This protein is responsible for placing an amino acid (glycine) onto a transfer RNA (tRNA). This step is the first, essential step of protein synthesis (the process by which mRNA is translated into protein). The reason why this gene is so interesting, is that we have identified mutations in it that cause peripheral neuropathy - a disease where patients get severe weakness in their hands and feet. Why do mutations in such a universally important gene cause a very specific disease??? This question is very interesting to us and is the central focus of my current research. Q: Kathryn: What does DNA have to do with Fragile X syndrome? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Fragile X is a condition caused by changes in the DNA in the X chromosome. Our DNA is organized in structures called chromosomes. We 23 pairs of chromosomes - the first 22 are called autosomes and are responsible for many different traits, the last pair determines our gender and some other characteristics. Individuals with Fragile X have changes in a specific site in their X chromosome that leads them to have features of the condition, such as learning difficulties. Q: Kelly from St Paul's School for Girls: Is there a national DNA musuem? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: No, not specifically for DNA, but there are plenty of science museums that have great exhibits around DNA. For example, the National Library of Medicine at the NIH has a fantastic exhibit on forensics. Q: RICH EHLMERICHS: DOES DNA HAVE TO DO WITH AMERICAN IDOL? WHO WILL WIN AMERICAN IDOL? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Well, vocal talent may have a genetic component. There's also the fact that many folks who audition are tone deaf, which could also be genetic. I doubt there's a direct link between DNA and predicting who will win. If I had to make a prediction, I'd say it's going to be a toss up between Jordan and Blake primarily because they are the most marketable. I personally love Melinda. Q: SHAWDAYYY, San Diego: Can alleles be changed? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Our DNA is being inundated with radiation from the sun all the time which can change our DNA. In addition, viruses can also insert their genetic material into our DNA and exist there for years causing changes in our DNA. In the future, we hope that gene therapy or the ability to change specific genes to correct mutations will be a utilized therapy. Q: Pepe, Guadalajara: Flavia, are you Mexican like me? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: No, I'm not Mexican. I'm from Brazil. Like in Mexico, people in Brazil descend from many different ethnic groups -- caucasians from Western Europe, blacks from Africa, native populations. This makes our countries very interesting and diverse! This is one of the reasons I became interested in genetics, and chose genetic counseling as my profession.
Q: amanda long, florida: if im adopted, how do i find out information about my birth parents' dna? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: There aren't DNA banks of birth parents. I think the best option would to check out some of the websites that let you enter your birthday, etc. and will help you match up to your birth parents in order to learn more about your medical history. Family history is the best way to understand your personal genetic risk for disease. Q: jepeto mendez: When was NHGRI established? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The NHGRI began in 1989 as a center (the National Center for Human Genome Research) at the NIH, and was responsible for leading the NIH's role in the Human Genome Project. It then was renamed to be the National Human Genome Research Institute in 1997. Q: Rob K. Grand Island: What is the best sample to take from a dead body for DNA testing? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Skin, hair, saliva, blood. Most of these cells contain DNA. Q: tevin ali boca raton florida: How many base pairs are there in the DNA code within each cell? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Each cell in our body contains about 3 billion base pairs of DNA! Furthermore, every time a cell divides (and gives rise to two 'daughter' cells) this large amount of DNA is copied (or replicated) so that each daughter cell carries a complete copy. While only about 2-3% of this DNA encodes proteins, much of the remaining DNA is presumed to be important. A major focus of genomic research is to determine the function of the 98% of DNA that does not code for proteins. Q: Lucinda Yu Carver High School Houston, Texas: Does a particular ethnic race or group at a higher risk for developing diabetes? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Adult onset diabetes, the most common form of diabetes, is a complex disease caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental risk factors include obesity, which can be affected by diet. Individuals in certain ethnic groups may be more likely to be exposed to certain environmental risk factors based on shared cultural values and traditions, which may increase their risk through their diet not because of their genetic make up. Researchers are constantly studying diabetes to identify other enviromental and potential genetic risk factors. Q: D. Lawrence, New York: Why don't red blood cells contain DNA? How is the protein hemoglobin produced if it cannot be transcribed from the cell's DNA? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Red blood cells do not have a nucleus, so they do not have DNA. Hemoglobin can be made by other cells (like cells in the bone marrow) that have DNA that codes (or instructs) for the protein hemoglobin. But they themselves do not have DNA and so cannot make any proteins. Hope this helps! Q: JFK MIddle School New York: Do you think that we will be able to choose our genes in the future? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: You are stuck with your DNA for life. Future generations may be able to have more control over their genetics. For instance, we have the ability right now to do genetic testing on embryos and only transfer back those embryos that are free of the genetic alteration that causes the disease. Q: : Since most of the genetic sequence is identical(99.9%), human beings vary by mutations in that 0.1% of base pairs. Therefore, considering the billions of people that have lived on this Earth, is it safe to hypothesize that two people have shared the same genetic sequence(excluding identical twins)? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Individuals have probably shared similar sequence over time. Based upon the billions of combinations it would be hard to say that two people shared the exact genetic sequence. In my opinion, based upon the the billions and billions of combinations that one person could have, I would say it is unlikely, but not impossible, that two unrelated individuals shared the same exact genetic material. Q: willie, hf: OH YEAH DNA DAY! WOO HOO THIS IS LIKE A SECOND CHRISTMAS FOR ME. THIS SHOULD BE A NATIONAL HOLIDAY!! A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Hi Willie! Yes we are also very excited for it to be DNA Day again this year. Thanks for your excitement! Q: Manuel: In reference to the novel "Double Helix," is it possible to identify a genetic order in certain eggs and fertilize only those without the disorder? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: No. A human egg only has one cell. If we tested the cell, the cell would die. The same goes for sperm. Once the human egg is fertilized, it begins dividing. Once it reaches the point where there are about 16 cells, it is possible to remove one of those cells and test it. Then doctors can choose between the embryos and only transfer those embryos without the genetic alteration that causes disease back to the woman's uterus. This technology is called preimplantation genetic diagnosis or PGD. Q: Samantha Klasfeld: How much longer till you find the cure for Alzheimers? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: It is difficult to say how long it will take until we find a cure for Alzheimers. There is a lot of research going on to find ways we can treat Alzheimers. There is also a lot of research going on to look at ways we can delay symptoms and improve the quality of life of those individuals who are diagnosed with this disease. We will probably make more progress in this area of delaying symptoms before we are able to find a cure. Q: Shananay Laquisha, Witchiaka, Kansas: When DNA was first discovered were people suprised? Or did some people go into panic that people were going to try to steal you DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: I wish I could say I was there when DNA was discovered to see their reaction, but it was quite a long time ago. I think with each new genetic discovery people are excited at the possibilites, but also take care to make sure the information is appropriately used. Q: Morgan Springer, St. Paul's School for Girls: Are sociability and friendliness genetically based? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: We don't know yet. My guess is that there are lots of genetic and environmental factors including a person's choice at every given moment. Q: JFK MS - New York: DO you know if anger is associated with DNA? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: There may be a genetic influence, but there are also many environmental factors including a person's individual choice at any given moment. Q: Lisa HF: What is the Human Genome Project? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Lisa. The HGP, completed in 2003, was an international effort to identify the sequence of all 3.2 billion base pairs that make up human genes. There were and are other projects to determine the DNA sequence of other species as well, for example mouse, many bacteria, the chimapnzee, and the macaque monkey. These sequences are available to the public on a variety of databases. The major challenge, once a sequence is completed, is to figure out what those data mean in terms of the biology of the species in question. Best -- Joe McInerney Q: Bob Dole: why do you love your job? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: It never get's boring. The technology is always changing, so there are always new ethical questions to think about. I also get to do lots of different things including research, teaching, mentoring, and participating in DNA Day. Q: brandi boca raton florida: What are some of the most recent advances from the Human Genome Project? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Many of the tools and technologies that were created during the Human Genome Project are now being used for today's research. For example, GWAS (or Genome Wide Association Studies) have been made possible because of the advances in technology of the Genome Project as a way to identify genes responsible for more common disorders, such as cancer or diabetes. Q: Sule Bertram from Rockford IL: I was wondering what is happening at the molecular level during transcription/translation that makes one allele dominant over another. Does the polymerase have an affinity to the dominant allele over the recessive one? Or is the control at the translation level? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: At the transcription level, variations in promoter sequences and the affinty of the RNA polymerase for the promoter can have an effect on the level of the transcripts produces. In additon, translation of the allele could be affected by factors such as the morphology or amount of the transcript available for translation. Q: Ryan C. QBY, NY: Is there a cure or treatment for color blindness? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: There are a number of different types of color blindness, including red-green colorblindness and a complete lack of ability to see color. Colorblindness is casued by changes in genes that influence the distribution of rods and cones in the eyes. Because these changes are found in every cell of the body, we currently do not have the technology to fix the problem, though this technology, called gene therapy, is being researched. Q: Nate Glover: Is it possible to "inject" your DNA with a spider's and turn out like Spiderman? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Spiderman is a great science fiction, comic book hero. While most science fiction is based on some science fact, it would not be possible to inject yourself with spider DNA and become like Spiderman. One reason for this is that, for a spider to become a spider, there is a detailed developmental process involving gene regulation (turning them on and off), cell differentiation, and so forth. Therefore, injecting the spider DNA into already-differentiated human cells would not allow the development of spider-like qualities and could actually be harmful! Q: Marcelo Lopez, from Johannesberg, South Africa: Do you think the theme from GATTACA will come true? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Good question. In the movie GATTACA, genetic discrimination is illegal, but it still rules people's lives. There's a bill in the Congress right now (that we refer to as GINA) to make genetic discrimination illegal, but even if it is illegal to discriminate based on genetics for job hiring or insurance coverage, we don't know how people might use genetic testing in the future. Currently, certain cultures routinely test for carrier status for certain diseases before they marry or have children. This could potentially become more common in the future. It's up to all of us collectively to make sure that we use this new and exciting technology to create a better society for everyone. Q: Christopher Green, Carver High School, Houston TX: How could changing one base in the DNA sequence disrupt the production of essential amino acids? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The codon sequences (three bases that represent the amino acids) are specific for each of the amino acids. If one base is changed, this can result in a change to the codon. Changing the codon can result in a change in the amino acid. Q: George emmanouilidis i am from greece: What would happen if humans didn't have genetics? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, George. The discipline "genetics" is the study of inherited biological variation. If we didn't have this discipline we'd know a lot less about the origin, nature, and extent of human variation. If you mean, "what would happen if we didn't have genes," the short answer is that we wouldn't be here. Genes -- DNA - are the basic molecules of life. Best -- Joe McInerney Q: Maxwell and abby-gail, Tennessee: Is it possible for gene mutations to develop in the later stages of life? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: This is a great question. Gene mutations can develop throughout our life and as people get older they tend to have more of these mutations or changes. Changes that happen in our gene during our life (or after we are born) tend to affect only some cells as opposed to all of the cells in our body. One example of this is cancer. Cancer arises from gene mutations in a specific cell that then passes that mutation on to its daughter cells and so on until there are enough cells with gene mutations that leads to cancer. The good news is that our cells can correct mistakes and gene changes before they cause a disease like cancer. Once in a while, however, these mechanisms fail, leading to disease. Q: eligio: Do you think that later we can modify DNA in order for a human being to reach perfection? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Probably not because everyone's definition of perfection is different. Also, character traits have positive and negative characteristics. It's up to every individual to channel characteristics like ambition, intelligence, etc. in ways that contribute to the good of society. Q: Amanda from Baltimore, MD: What does your day typically look like? Are there people who work in your field without participating in research? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: My job doesn't involve research. I work in an Education office and get to organize online chatrooms and other programs for people who are interested in learning about genetics. I'm sitting in a room filled with people who have very different jobs, all related to genetics. Some are basic scientists, others genetic counselors who see patients through their day, others consider the ethical implications of genetics, and still others work in a media office to help announce all of the exciting events in the field of genetics. It's a very diverse field! Q: Stephanie from NJ: Is there a gene for for the way people think or see the world? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Not that we know of. Even if people have a generally positive or negative outlook on life, they always have the freedom to change that perception. Q: Deidre from NJ: Is it possible for parents who are genetically related to have normal children? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Yes. Parents who are closely related (first cousins) may be more likely to have children affected by autosomal recessive conditions, which means that the child carries mutations in both copies of a certain gene. Even in these situations, the parents have a 75% (3 in 4) chance of having a child who is not affected by disease.
Q: Bobby Losoya, St. Ignacious Prep: How can the knowledge of RNAi be manipulated by scientists to our advantage? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: RNAi has been utilized as a tool be scientists to interfere with the production of proteins in orders to decrese the amount of protein that a cells produces or down regulating the proteins. Q: chris kingry, crooms AOIT: how close are people on creating a way to creat eternal life or somthing like that? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Public health interventions and some medical interventions have extended our life span over the last few decades, but death in not something we are likely to escape anytime soon. Q: Sarah Felty: Can someone change their DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: For the most part, DNA is an incredibly stable molecule. However, there are small changes that naturally occur through a person's life, but these don't necessarily cause phenotypic changes. There are some outside forces, such as radiation or other mutagens, that can cause changes to a person's DNA. Q: Marcelo Lopez, from Johannesberg, South Africa: How linked is evolution to genetics? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Marcelo. It's impossiblle to understand genetics without genetics, and vice-versa. Darwin showed us that variation is the rule, not the exception, in the living world. Variation is essential to Darwin's theory of natural selection -- if all members of a given species were the same, there could be no differential selection. Genetics helps us understand where biological variation resides and how it gets transmitted from one generation to the next. The only variation that matters in an evolutionary sense is variation that is passed on. Finally, one definition of genetics is a change in gene frequencies in a population across time. Q: sarah cisek, St. Paul's School for Girls: Primarily, where is most genetic research conducted? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: It depends on the kind of research. Some research is conducted in the typical wet lab. But other research occurs entirely on computers. Genetic research that answers social and behavioral questions may be conducted through surveys and focus groups. Genetic research is an incredibly diverse field. Q: Kelci Hughesville,MD: Have they used gene therapy for treating breast cancer? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: The short answer is not yet. Breast cancer is a very complex disease caused by changes or mutations in many different genes. This makes it a difficult disease to be treated by gene therapy. Some people do have a predisposition or a greater chance to develop breast cancer because of a gene change or mutation they are born with. Not many people fall in this category. But for those that do, there may be a way in the distant future that we can alter their genes and decrease their chance of developing breast cancer. In general, gene therapy is still in its early stages and is only available as part of research studies for very specific conditions. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: How can something so small, like DNA, hold so much information about a person? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Not only is DNA small, it is also fairly simple in that it contains only four types of nucleotides (adenine or A, guanine or G, cytosine or C, and thymine or T). These nucleotides are responsible for carrying out the many functions of the genome (for example making proteins, regulating the activity of genes, organizing the genome into the nucleus of cells, and so on). The different combinations of these nucleotides is one of the ways that DNA can carry so much information about people (that is, how to make different proteins, how and when to turn a gene off or on). Furthermore, while DNA is very small, there are many of these nucleotides in each cell (about 3 billion). Thus, having a lot of DNA in each cell is another way for it to carry information. Q: Willard Bobby, Poster, CO: As high school athletes continue to strive for more of an edge, could these athletes gain that edge by using DNA as a substitute for steroids? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Yes. The internation olympics committee is already beginning to think about this. Hypothetically, modifying a person's DNA would be the most efficient at the point of conception. Altering a person's DNA after they are born is only being used in clinical trials to try to treat disease. Q: JFK MS - NY: Is the ability to memorize things quickly inherited? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: I'm not aware of any research to test that theory. Q: NIck Sigmon: Can DNA make noise? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I am not sure that DNA makes noise, but the process of replicating it, transcribing it, and modifying it requires cellular processes that probably make really, really small noises. Q: JFK MS - NY: If you volunteer to clone yourself, is it still illegal? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: There are some states that have made reproductive cloning illegal. The federal government has yet to pass legislation on this issue. As of today, no one has actually cloned a human being. Q: David, newton,MA: How long is a strand of DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Great question! A strand of DNA from one cell, completely unwound, would stretch six feet long! Q: Benito Camelo: Why do you like your job, Flavia? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: I like my job for many different reasons. One of them is that I can help individuals and families who may be at risk for a genetic condition. Another reason is that my job allows me to do research in areas that interest me. And, lastly, it allows me to teach students in the classroom and in the clinic, which is something I love to do! Q: Shannon Hudson, Crawfordsville, Indiana: Do you believe the term "race" should be used when referring to different ethnic backgrounds? How woudl you define the tow terms to students? A: Jean McEwen: Race is primarily a social construct relating to how individuals and groups define themselves. It is inherently a very imprecise concept, as there are no clear "boundaries" between "races." Ethnicity is also primarily a social construct, which relates to groups that share a common cultural background, language, diet, etc. In genetics, the concepts of both race and ethnicity have limited utility because of their inherent imprecision and the fact that they are both largely social--not biological--constructs. Ancestral geography, however, does have meaning for geneticists, because it may correlate with differences in the frequencies with which people have certain genetic variants. Ancestral geography does correlate to some extent with concepts of race and ethnicity, but it is not exactly the same thing. Q: MEMS Middle per 1: Does anyone have the same DNA as anyone else? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: The DNA that an individual carries in their cells is unique to that person, and is inherited from both biological parents (half from the mother, and half from the father). Therefore, nobody really has the same DNA as another person. This is why DNA profiling is an effective tool for identifying people. That being said, the DNA from any two individuals is more than 99% identical, and it is believed that very small differences are responsible for our individual characteristics. Q: Zack Armanda: I fear I may have herpes. Will it affect the dna in my children? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: No. Herpes is caused by a virus and can be passed on to other people through sexual contact, but it does not cause mutations in your sperm or egg cells. This means that you are not at any greater risk of having children with changes in their DNA than if you hadn't had herpes. There are treatments available for herpes. You can find more information about herpes at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/stdherp.htm. It's always a good idea to talk to your doctor about your fears about your health.
Q: B.B.S.P.Nag: Can you provide interactive multimedia presentation of gene mutations and chromosomal mutations for K-12 students? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Absolutely, a great multimedia resource is our Education Kit, which can be found online at http://genome.gov/25019879. Another great resource is the Genetic Science Learning Center at http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/ Q: evan florida: how much money do you make a year A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: A lot. Way more than the national average household income for the US, but average for the Washington DC area where the cost of living is very high. I have a Ph.D. in public health and was very poor for many years while I was in school. Most of my salary goes to pay for child care for my two boys. Q: Usnavy Abatecola: Do people have similar DNA? A: Jean McEwen: Yes, we are all approximately 99.9% identical at the DNA level. However, even very small differences in DNA from person to person can in some cases have important health implications. Q: : Do you have DNA Day every year? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes! DNA Day occurs every year on April 25. It is something we look forward to every year! Q: Springer: What are future directions in DNA research? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA research is going in many directions. Here are just a few: 1. Gene therapy 2. Analysis of the the genome and trying to better understand how the environment affects our genes 3. Better understanding of human variation 4. Personalized medicine 5. Pharmacogenomics 6. and more Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: Where is ligase made and what is it made up of? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: A ligase is an enzyme that attaches two molecules, and there are many genes that makes ligases in the human genome. One example are the enzymes that ligate amino acids to tRNA molecules. Since ligases are enzymes (a special kind of protein) they are made up of amino acids. Q: Daia from Georgia: Is intelligence determinded by genes A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: It definitely has a genetic component, but certainly isn't based on a single gene. It's likely a combination of multiple genes and the environment. Q: : Can you inherite a trisomy? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Individuals who are born with a trisomy usually have them as a result of a mistake in cell division. This mistake can happen in the sperm, or in the egg, or in the fetus at the time they are being formed in his/her mom's womb. This type of mistake happens by chance in most cases. An example of a trisomy is Trisomy 21 which leads to Down Syndrome. Most individuals with Trisomy 21 have it as a result of one of these mistakes in cell division. Q: Lauren Chieffo and Rachel Besser: What are some of the experiments that you are working on right now? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: I work on two kinds of experiments. First, I am trying to identify genes that cause neurodegenerative diseases in humans. This involves obtaining DNA from various patients with these diseases and performing PCR (the polymerase chain reaction), and DNA sequencing to identify disease-associated mutations. Second, I am trying to understand the development of the peripheral nervous system - the part of our body that controls, for example, movement of our hands and feet. Mainly, I am interested in comparing the genomes of different animals (human, mouse, rat, and so on) to identify genomic regions that are involved in turning genes on and off as the peripheral nervous system develops. Q: Dude Johnson: What is holding back gene therapy? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Because the greatest concern for new therapies is safety, one of the challenges in developing gene therapy is to make sure it is safe for participants in clinical trials. Also, the technology itself is quite complex because the therapy would have to be delivered to many cells. Researchers are working hard on finding ways to address the difficulties and move the technology forward. Q: kayla: Sarah, how did you decide that you wanted to become a scientist? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Hi Kayla, My father was a huge influence for me to go into science. He was a science teacher and encouraged me to study science when i was in college, and I really enjoyed learning about how things work. After college I studied public health genetics, because I was interested in learning about the implications of genetics, and how genetics might affect large groups of people in the future. It's a very rewarding field to be in, and certainly there is never a dull day. Q: patrick: how does it feel to be scientist A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Being a scientist is really a fascinating opportunity. Each and everyday one is able to learn new things and explore new questions. I have been studying a rare disease where children age prematurely and it is exciting to come to work each day and use experimental techniques to answer questions that both might lead to new treatments for this condition as well as insight into the normal aging process. Q: Sam Vaught, Crawfordsville, Indiana: Do you support the use of DNA in criminiology? (use of evidence for conviction, etc) A: Jean McEwen: DNA can be a very powerful tool in criminal cases, both to help identify guilty people and exonerate innocent people in cases that involve biological evidence. (Many people who have spent years in prison - some of them on death row - have been exonerated through DNA technology.) Of course, it is important that the chain of evidence be handled properly and that labs that do the testing maintain good quality in control in order for the evidence to be reliable. A major policy current policy issue in this area is whether the state should pay for DNA testing for people who have already been convicted but who continue to maintain that they are innocent. Q: sean p, minnetonka mn: When did the human genome project start? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Hi Sean, The genome project kicked off in 1990, and finished up in 2003...ahead of schedule! Q: Rachel and Lauren: What do you find most benefical about working with DNA? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: I think the most important aspect of our research is the ability to identify variations in DNA that cause human disease. First, this will allow us to more accurately diagnose patients and to develop novel or more efficient therapies for specific diseases. Second, by understanding how mistakes in DNA cause diseases we get a better idea of how molecules, cells, organs, and tissues normally function. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: Is being an albino hereditary? If so, is it dominant or recessive? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Albinism refers to a group of disorders that are inherited. Most types of albinism are inherited in an autosomal recessive form, meaning the individual with albinism inherits two gene changes, one from the mother and one from the father. There is a great website that goes over albinism in detail. I think you would enjoy checking it out. See the link below. http://www.albinism.org/publications/what_is_albinism.html Q: Tara, St. Paul's School for Girls: Is there a way to prevent someone from inheriting a genetic disease that one or both of their parents have if doctors are aware of the inheritance risk before the baby is born? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Yes. A couple who know that they are at risk of having a child with a genetic disease have a number of options. They can take their changes with a natural conception. Some types of genetic disease have a 50% chance of being passed on to a child and other diseases only one out of four children will actually have the disease. The couple can then have prenatal testing. If the fetus has the genetic disease, the couple will have to make a difficult decision about whether or not to continue the pregnancy. The couple can use a sperm donor to have children to avoid the risk of disease. They can adopt, or they can use invitro fertilization to create multiple embryos. These embryos are grown in a dish until they have about 16 cells. One cell is removed with a microscopic straw, and the DNA from the cell is tested. Those embryos that are unaffected by the genetic condition are then transferred to the woman's uterus. Affected embryos are usually discarded; however, some of them have been donated to stem cell research designed to learn more about these genetic diseases. This research could lead to new treatments. Q: MEMS Middle per 3: Can DNA change as you get older? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: DNA can change as one ages. With age, different stresses, for example UV sunlight, can damage DNA and many people think that these DNA changes are what lead to normal aging. Q: fio Newton,MA: Which one, DNA or enviroment affects a persons traits more? A: Jean McEwen: It depends on the trait or disease. However, most human traits, and most common diseases, are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Many studies are now underway to try to figure out the relative contributions of genes and environment to a number of common, complex conditions. Q: Tighe Lutz: do you have a wife/husband, and are they a nerd too? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: I have a husband. He's way more of a nerd than I am. I am a social scientist who studies the ethical implications of the human genome project. It's really cool. My husband is a computer expert. I don't understand anything that he does. On the weekends, he's a volunteer fire fighter. I like to quilt in my spare time. We have two boys ages 3 and 6 who keep us really busy. When I get home from work, I frequently color, ride bikes, or go to the park and feed the ducks. Sounds pretty nerdy, huh? Q: Kyle carrilio, florida: What are your typical research experiments about and how do they affect us? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: My research involves identifying variations in DNA that cause human disease. Basically, this involves obtaining DNA from patients with specific genetic diseases, and performing PCR (the polymerase chain reaction) and DNA sequencing to identify disease-asoociated mutations. The major affect this will have on public health is that, by knowing the specific mutations that cause a disease, we will: (1) be able to more accurately diagnose patients; (2) be able to develop novel or more efficient therapeutics; and (3) get a better understanding of how the affected genes normally function. Q: Brian HFCHS: What is the point of DNA Day? Does anything special happen? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA Day is the celebration of the completion of the Human Genome Project and the anniversary of the description of the double helix by Watson and Crick. Every year the NHGRI celebrates by hosting an online chatroom like this one, and sending researchers out to classrooms to talk about their careers and about exciting topics in genetics. It's a lot of fun, we look forward to it every year! Q: Drew Johnson, GA: Is being a scientist stressful to your sex life? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: Not really. I love my research, and it never get's boring. Right now, I find being a mother way more stressful. Q: patrick: What kind of scientist are you? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Currently I am studying to receive both my medical degree and my Ph.D. in molecular and cellular biology. I hope that by receiving this broad training in both science and medicine that I will be able to take results from basic science lab experiments and translate them into clinical treatments and improvements for patients. Q: cam yeaw newton massachusets brown middle school: Will we have the same DNA in the future or will it be different? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: DNA is made up of 4 base pairs and that will not change in the near future. An individual's DNA can change during his or her lifetime because of environmental exposures. For example, most types of cancer are caused by mutations in genes that control cell growth and division. These mutations happen during a person's lifetime and we often do not know what the specific cause of the mutation is. Q: thomas Muntaner, St. Ignacious Prep: As prenatal testing and genetic test become more used to look for genetic diseases, do you think that our privacy will be at risk with insurance agencies, and if so what do you think that we should do to combat such a thing from occurring? A: Andrea Kalfoglou, Ph.D.: The US Congress is currently debating a bill that would make genetic discrimination for insurance purposes illegal. Let's hope it passes. Q: Ms. Lugo Rosa Parks High School, Paterson, NJ: Mr.McInerny, with regards to the new behaviors being demonstrated by chimps, gorillas and some bird species (i.e. tool use), do you speculate that their evolution will mirror that of humans whereby their intelligence will place them higher in the food web? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Dear Ms. Lugo: Thanks for your interesting question. First, we have to remember that these behaviors likely are not new to these species. We have, rather, begun to look for different types of behavior in many species and have uncovered some that we did not recognize before, or we have begun to attach new interpretations to those behaviors. For example, behavioral biologists have observed some chimpanzees seemingly comforting others in times of stress. We still don't know what that means for sure. It is clear, however, that many behaviors are conserved across species, inclding primates -- Darwin even wrote a book about that. Remember that behaviors have an environmental context, and that behaviors reflect the needs of the species in question. We never know what direction evolution will take, but there is no expectation that birds, for example, eventally will to move "up" toward humans in terms of intellectual capacity. Q: Liz Komarek Holy Family Catholic High School: Has there been a discovered for breast cancer? Can breast cancer be inherited? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Most breast cancer is not inherited. About 10% of all cases of breast cancer are due to inherited predispositions to breast cancer. There are different genes changes that lead to these predispositions. Most individuals who have a predisposition to breast cancer have changes in one of two genes called BRCA1 and BRCA2 -- BR stands for breast, CA stands for cancer, 1 for the first gene that was found, and 2 for the second one. It is important to understand that people who have changes in these genes have a predisposition or a higher chance to develop breast cancer compared to those people who do not have these gene changes. But it does not mean that they will for sure develop breast cancer. Hope this helps! Q: Richard Cranium: If you could be a gene, what gene would you be? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: I think I would be Gene Kelly...I've always wanted to be able to dance :) Q: JFK MS - NY: Do my genes affect my dislikes and likes? A: Jean McEwen: They probably do in some way, but right now we really understand very little about how genes interact with factors in people's environments to influence likes, dislikes, or other complex behavioral or personality traits. Q: Heidi: My professor is involved in C. elegans studies. Are any of you, and in what manner? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: I, myself, am not working with C. elegans, though I am aware of a lot of work that has been done with this organism and it has definitely provided scientists with many incredible insights into numerous biological processes. For instance, single mutations in C. elegans can actually double their lifespans! I am currently working just with mice and human samples. Q: brandi boca raton florida: Do you have time outside of the lab to spend time with your family? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Yes! I have a wife and two beautiful children, and spend a lot of my time with them. Science is a career path that can occupy a lot of your time. This is in part due to the pressure to produce and publish data, and in part due to the fact that most scientists really enjoy their job. However, I try to keep a very balanced lifestyle, and while I work very hard, I try to know when to stop! Q: skylar, newton: If you have progeria, do you immediatley start to look as if you are much older then you are, or do you go through a process, like you look 20 and then 30 and then 40 etc. A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Children with progeria look actually completely normal when they are born. It is only at about 12-20 months of age that the kids begin to show the first signs of aging. It is a rapid course and the children begin to have elderly features shortly after that (hair loss, skin wrinkling, heart disease). Q: Jean Marx Florida: What kind of education is required for your field of work? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Many different people with varying educational background work in the field of genetics. My major career goal is to become a professor at a university and to carry out genetic research. Toward this, I obtained a college degree in Zoology, worked in research for a few years, and then went back to get Ph.D. However, I work with a lot of excellent scientists that have college degrees, M.D.s, Ph.D.s, and M.D./Ph.D.s. I think it really depends on your specific career goal. Q: B.B.S.P.Nag, SMV Centre for Biotechnology, NAGPUR, INDIA: Now it is 7:45 P.M. in India. My M.Sc. Biotechnology students are participating in DNA Day chat. What are your suggestions for building their career in Human Genetic research in Indian percepective? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Hello to India! Thank you for participating in the chatroom this year. I would encourage your students to figure out what about genetics interests them, whether it's working in a lab, or being in a clinic, or any of the other applications of genetics. It's important to get a good foundation of education in the field, but to definitely follow where your interests lie. Q: Nicholas Brown Middle School: In the rat, is an xx chromosome a girl and xy a boy, or are these labels different for rats? A: Anthony Antonellis, Ph.D.: Yes, rats are similar to humans in that male rats carry one X and one Y chromosome, and female rats carry two X chromosomes. Q: carlos boston MA: Is there a cure for progeria? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: There is no cure for progeria, though since the discovery of the genetic mutation that causes progeria in 2003, numerous advances have been made that have brought us closer to potential therapies. In fact, studies from our lab have led to a potential drug therapy in a drug called an "FTI" or a farnesyltransferase inhibitor. A clinical trial testing this drug in children with progeria is set to begin later this year actually! Q: Courtney Opich: What does it cost of having your DNA sequences to check and see if your related to someone A: Jean McEwen: There are a number of companies that now perform DNA ancestry testing. Prices vary, but generally run from about $100 to $650, depending on the complexity of the test. Q: Mike from NJ: Is there a gene for hearing loss? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: There are several hundred genes known to cause hereditary hearing loss. Hereditary hearing loss can be inherited as part of a condition that leads the individual to have other features besides hearing loss, or it can be inherited by itself, i.e. without any other features. Genetic testing is available for many different types of inherited hearing loss. If you, a friend, or a family member is interested in speaking with a health care professional about this, you can go to the National Society of Genetic Counselors website and search for a genetic counselor in your area. That site is www.nsgc.org Q: Hannah from Newton: What are the symptoms of Progeria A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Skin wrinkling, hair loss, short stature, bone changes such as osteoporosis, and severe heart disease that leads to death in most cases at an average age of 12 or 13. Q: Nick McAndrews, HFCHS, MN: Why is it so important to know what DNA is? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Nick. DNA is an information molecule, and it carries information coded in digital form. It is the universal information molecule for all life on earth - from bacteria and worms to oak trees and human beings. DNA provides continuity of information between cells, between generations of individual organisms and between species across evolutionary time. By studying DNA we can learn how organisms grow and develop, how biological processes are controlled and even about the history of our species. Here at NIH we are interested in how DNA influences the onset, expression and treatment of disease, including the diseases that are the major causes of illness and death around the world, for example, cancer, heart disease, mental illness, infection and diabetes. Best -- Joe McInerney Q: Juliana Newton, MA: Dear Dr. Capell, What is the average life span for kids with progeria? Is there any chance to live past adolescence? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Kids with progeria usually only live to an average age of 12 or 13, though it is variable. Some have died much earlier at 4 years or so. The oldest reported progeria patient was 26 years old when he died. It seems to depend upon the mutation that the patient has. Q: Heather,Erie One Boces: What causes a still birth (death of baby at birth)? Is it hereditary? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Stillbirths have a number different causes, including enviromental, genetic, and factors related to the pregnancy. If the stillbirth is because a child is affected by a genetic condition, it may or may not be more likely to happen again. For example, children with an extra chromosome 18 or 13 (trisomy 18 or 13) are more likely to be stillborn, but, in most cases, this condition happens by chance. Most parents are not at higher risk of having another child with the same issue. In other cases, a stillbirth can be caused by inheriting genetic mutations from the parents. In this case, the parents are at increased risk of having another affected child. Genetic counselors can help parents sort out their risk for future children. Q: Andrea From Newton: With the disease Progeria, does it mostly affect girls or boys or dose everyone have the same chance of getting it? how many people out of 100 get it how does it work. A: Brian Capell, M.D.: It seems to affect both boys and girls equally. It only happens in about 1 out of 4,000,000 births and there are only about 75-100 known cases in the world right now! Q: Dara Brown Midde School: Carla Easter, what do you wish to accomplish in the near future? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I hope that my work at the Genome Institute will influence students like yourself to pursue careers in genomics and genetics and help the public better understand genetics and genomics. Q: Ary newton: Does progeria limit how tall a person might grow? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Yes, children with progeria usually only grow to about 3 feet tall on average. Q: Helena Newton, MA: can people with progenia reproduce? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: No, children with progeria remain sexually immature despite the rest of their body aging so rapidly. Q: David Furman Cape Elizabeth: is talent genetic? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: It is likely that talent, such as singing or acting, has some genetic component. However, there have not been any specific genes identified to date. Q: Brittany Campbell, Utah: How is it we know the gene for cystic fibrosis but don't know how to cure it? What is being done to find the cure for things that we know the genes for? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: We have been much better at identifying genes that cause hereditary conditions than finding a treatment for hereditary conditions. This is because the technology for identifying genes is much more developed than the technology for providing gene therapy. There are ongoing research studies looking at gene therapy for very specific conditions. But in general gene therapy is still in its early stages. Hopefully the technology will continue to develop and one we will be able to offer gene therapy for conditions that are inherited. Q: danielle newon ma: What does it feel like to have progeria, do you feel as old as you look? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Yes, unfortunately for these children, they really do feel their aging appearance. For example, they have joints that ache due to arthritis and they feel chest pain due to their heart disease when the disease has advanced enough. Q: Julia from Newton, MA: How many doctors are there answering questions now? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: We currently have about 8 experts in the room together all working to answer your questions. They have very different backgrounds, from genetic counseling, to public health, to molecular biology, and ethics. Keep the questions coming! Q: Dara Brown Midde School: How did Francis Crick and James Watson figure out the shape of DNA? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Utlizing data from x-ray diffraction experiments, physics, and chemistry in addtion to working with collaborators, they were able to integrate this information to figure out the shape. Q: Andy Hidalgo, Los Angeles California: Do you think that at one point in the world, everybody will have the same DNA? If yes, why? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Andy. The DNA in all people - in all other organisms on the planet - is esentially the same in terms of its chemical struture. Among human beings, the sequence of the DNA bases is about 99.9 percent idenitical - but given 3.2 billion bases that still leave alot of differences. Given that mutation is continual and that new combinations of genes are created by crossing over and sexual reproduction, it is unlike that there will ever be two people - except identical twins - alike, much less everyone in the world. Best - Joe McInerney Q: Frank , Laredo, TX: This might sound stupid, and it's sort of a controversial issue, but, IS there such a thing as a "gay gene"? There are lots of theories going on, but this one seems to be the most interesting, as I do see homosexuality running in families I know. Thank you. A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: This is not a stupid question. It is a complex one, however. All conditions have both genetic and environmental components. No specific gene or set of genes for homosexuality has been identified. Q: Nick Newton, MA: Do all of you work in the same lab or are you all from different labs? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Everyone in the chatroom now is from different parts of the Institute here. Some work in the Genome Technology Branch, others work in the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications program, still others work in the clinial center. These different backgrounds reflect how diverse the field of genetics is. Q: Mr. Patricks - Hyde Park Middle School - Las Vegas Nevada: Can you tell my students what base pairs have to do with children aging prematurely and why these base pairs affect this process of growth! A: Brian Capell, M.D.: It is actually really amazing because one single change in one single base pair, a change of a C to a T in a gene known as LMNA, is what leads to the very dramatic and devastating premature aging of progeria. This single change effects the protein produced by the LMNA gene, and this errant protein effects the structure of the nucleus in our cells. How these effects on the nulceus leads to what we see outwardly in a progeria patient is not known completely yet, but we are making progess all the time and hope that this knowledge will lead to a treatment or cure someday! Q: Julia Berger Tessa Turner, Spanish River: Does skin color affect the types of diseases you can get? A: Jean McEwen: No--except maybe for diseases like skin cancer (in general, people with fair skin are more prone to skin cancer than people with dark pigmentation). It is true, however, that the part of the world where your ancestors came from may affect how genetically predisposed you are to getting certain diseases, because different populations have different frequencies of particular genetic variants that may contribute to some diseases. So while skin color itself has very little to do with what types of diseases a person might be predisposed to, it may have some limited relevance to the extent that it correlates in some cases, and tto some degree, with ancestral geographic origin. As a general matter, though, skin color alone is a very poor proxy for "race"(a largely social construct), which in turn is a very poor proxy for ancestral geography--the only thing that really matters for purposes of understanding differences among individuals in their genetic risk. Q: Ish newton mass: When someone has a second baby does the child get the same or different chromosomes as the first one? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Siblings share, on average, 50% of their genetic material. Each parent has 2 copies of each chromosome. They give one copy of each chromosome to each egg or sperm that they make. The egg and sperm that go onto be fertilized determine which chromosomes a child inherits. Therefore, siblings will share some of their chromosomes, but which ones is determined by chance. Q: luis crooms academy sanford florida: What is a mutation? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: A permanent structural alteration in DNA. In most cases, DNA changes either have no effect or cause harm, but occasionally a mutation can improve an organism's chance of surviving and passing the beneficial change on to its descendants. Q: Hannah from Newton: What is the gene that cause progeria? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: It's called LMNA and it produces proteins that form the structural scaffolding of the nucleus in all of our cells. Q: Rachell Douglas: Do you like your job? If so, why? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Dear Rachell: Thanks for your question. I really like my job, which focuses on educating a broad range of health professionals about genetics and its role in health and disease. I get to work every day with very interesting content and with very smart people who are dedicated to their work and to helping others. One of the best things about my job is that I'm always learning new things about biology. Best - Joe McInerney Q: jonh thompson: I have AIDs. Will it pass on through my genes if i have kids? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: AIDs is an infectious condition. You cannot pass it on to your children through your genes. AIDs can be transmitted at delivery. Q: Natasza from Brown Middle School: Brian Capell: What do you like about your job and why? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: What I love most is being able to learn new things everyday about science, health, and disease. Being able to explore questions through experiments and to potentially be able to use this new knowledge to help people with sickness and disease is really the most exciting and rewarding part of science and medicine. Q: Chris Ernst I'm from North Las Vegas and from Hyde Park Middle School: What chromosome causes ADHD? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: This is a great question because we have reason to believe that ADHD has a genetic component. For example, attention disorders often run in families. At this point, however, we do not know of any specific gene or genes that cause ADHD. There is a lot of research going on to look at families that have ADHD and try to find genes that may cause it. Another thing to keep in mind is that ADHD is a very complex condition so there are probably envinronmental factors that contribute to it as well. Q: eugene: Why isn't Rosalind Franklin give more credit towards our understanding of DNA?? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: You make a good point. Few people know about the contributions of Dr. Franklin. She did publish a paper about the structure at the same time as Watson and Crick. Unfortunately, Dr. Franklin died before the Nobel Prize was awarded and this the Nobel Prize cannot be awarded after someone's death. Q: Lindsey, MN: What is the Human Genome project exactly? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The Human Genome Project involved three main goals. The first was to sequence all 3 billion base pairs in the human genome. The second goal was to identify all of the human genes. Finally, a goal was to make all of this information publicly available. Q: Nick Newton, MA: Are there certain places n the world where progeria is more common? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Patients with progeria have been found all over the world and from every continent. Given our knowledge right now, it doesn't seem to be any more or less common in different parts of the world. Q: Rachell Douglas: If you can describe DNA in one sentence, what would that sentence be? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Dear Rachell: Thanks for your question. DNA is the universal information molecule for all life on Earth and the information is encoded in digital form - A, T, C and G. Q: Shirley: Why are some people, "small people"? What is different in their DNA? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: We do not know at this point how many genes are involved in the determination of height. We do think that it is likely that there is more than one, and that the expression of those genes is influenced by a variety of environmental factors such as nutrition, disease, and access to healthcare. Q: Pepe, Guadalajara: Are Punnett squares as accurate in determining traits as they are easy to do? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: For Mendelian inherited traits (examples of Mendelian inheritance include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and sex-linked genes) Punnet squares work pretty well. If the trait is due to the interaction of multiple genes, they are not very useful.
Q: sarah cisek, maryland: What is an example of a rare genetic disease? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: An example of a rare disease is Progeria, with an incidence of 1 in 4 million individuals. Q: Rachell Douglas: What is one of your experiments? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: An example of one experiment is using a process known as "site-directed mutagenesis" to change the amino acid sequence of a protein in order to see how these amino acid sequences effect the function of the protein. For example, by changing the sequence of the progerin protein (the protein mutated in progeria), and then using a process known as transfection to put these mutated forms into cells, one can observe the effects of these amino acid changes and what role they might play in the disease. Q: Neetu waghmare, SMVCBT, Nagpur, INDIA: Is DNA concept confined to our Earth only or is it present on other planets also? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thank you for your question, Neetu. We don't know for certain whether DNA is present on other planets, but we do know that the environments on other planets would make it hard for DNA to function. DNA is the information molecule for all life on Earth, but if there is life on other planets (an open question), it might be based on other systems. Best -- Joe McInerney Q: Laura and Brooke, Hopewell NJ: Because I have both blonde hair and blue eyes are my genes completely recessive? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: The short answer is no. We inherit half of our genes from our mother and half of them from our father. All of us have traits that are inherited in different ways -- as a recessive trait, a dominant trait, and an X-linked trait. We used to think that hair color and eye color were inherited in a simple mendelian form, i.e. recessive or dominant. It turns out that they are probably inherited in a more complex way, as a result of more than just one gene. Hope this helps! Q: Dara Brown Midde School: Brian Capell, what do you wish to accomplish in the near future? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: I'm hoping to complete my M.D.-Ph.D. degree in May 2009 and then begin my residency training after that (this is the further more specialized training that doctors due after medical school before they practice on their own). Once I'm done with everything I would like to continue working as a physician-scientist combining both basic science research and clinical medicine. Q: MEMS Middle per 4: Do different parts of the body contain different types of DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: For the most part, all parts of the body -- all cells in the body -- contain the same DNA. There are a few exceptions. DNA is rearranged in some immune system cells, and is absent from red blood cells. But different genes are EXPRESSED in different cells. That's what makes them look, behave and function differently. Q: skylar, newton: Is it possible for the symptoms of progeria to show up at an age later then 12 or 13? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: No, the symptoms always show up by 2-3 years of age. There is another premature aging disease known as Werner syndrome however, that is somewhat like progeria and starts later with the symptoms often appearing in the teens and 20s. Q: Tyler Franks, Pocono Mountain West: Will we ever be able to know what kind of kids we will have? Meaning their characteristics and personalities, or will we ever be able to pick? A: Jean McEwen: Through prenatal testing and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, it is now possible to find out many characteristics of one's potential future offspring, such as whether they have genes associated with certain (mostly rare) genetic diseases. However, we still understand very little about the contribution that genes make to behavior or complex personality traits. All of these kinds of characteristics are highly influenced by environmental factors, not just by genes, so it is very unlikely that there will ever be a simple genetic test that will be able to predict anything so complex with any degree of precision. Even if it someday becomes possible to do such testing, there are serious ethical issues associated with genetic testing for purposes of enhancement. Q: Jessica NC: Is bi-polar disorder genetic? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Research on bipolar disorder suggests that there is a genetic component in some cases. There are environmental risk factors for bipolar disorder as well. We do not know specific genes that cause bipolar disorder alone, but we do know that having a strong family history of bipolar disorder increases your risk of developing the disease. Not everyone with a strong family history will develop disease. There is a lot of research going on to identify genes that contribute to risk for bipolar disease. Q: Mia Crooms AOIT Sanford: What made you want to be a scientist? How old were you when you figured out you wanted to be a scientist? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: This might sound silly, but I had a substitute teacher in 5th grade, who brought into class a microscope that projected its image onto a screen so the whole class could look. (Okay, I just told you how old I am -- this was before cheap video cameras!) The teacher showed us live paramecia and I was hooked! Q: Michael New Jersey: Is there any way to not get diabeties if it runs in your family, besides exercising and eating well)? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: At present, there is no specific genetic intervention that can prevent you from developing adult onset diabetes. Attention to environmental factors such as eating well and exercising are the current interventions to reduce the risk. Q: Mike Holt, Athens Michigan: If the cure for Progeria were to work, could you apply it to people without progeria, could it keep me looking 16 for the rest of my life?? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: That's a great question! Right now we are trying to figure out what role the process that causes progeria might have to do with the way we all age. Currently there is some evidence that there might be some relationship. However, the way we all age is caused by many things, everything from our genes to our lifestyle (what we eat, whether or not we smoke, etc.), so it is unlikely that any treatment for progeria which would be treating the genetic mutation, would be able to keep people looking 16. Perhaps it may allow us to live longer or healthier though! Q: sarah cisek, St. Paul's School for Girls: Does DNA determine a persons fingerprints? If so why is it that everybody's fingerprints are different? A: Flavia Facio, M.S.: Fingerprints are determined largely by genetics, but not entirely. The environment in the mother's womb also contributes to an individual's fingerprints. That is why, for example, identical twins' fingerprints are similar, but not exactly the same. Q: Nick Newton, MA: Can other living things beside people get progeria? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: No one has observed other animals getting premature aging diseases naturally to my knowledge. However, scientists have created many types of mice that do age prematurely due to a genetic mutation that they were given, such as the progeria LMNA mutation. Q: Simmons: What do you have to do to become a genetic counselor? What level of education, and what is your day like? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: To become a genetic counselor, you need to pursue a Master's Degree in Genetic Counseling. There are a number of programs across the United States. You can learn more about genetic counseling if you go to the web site of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. A typical day for a genetic counselor varies depending upon their focus. If you are a genetic counselor in a clinical genetics setting, you see individuals and families and evaluate their family history and answer their questions about genetic risk, genetic testing and interventions. Q: Nohemi Clara, California: Does DNA develop new genes over time? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Nohemi. Mutation creates new variations of existing genes and crossing over and sexual reproduction create new combinations of genes. You might want visit Oak Ridge National Laboratory's site: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml Best -- Joe McInerney Q: Nicole, ,from Asheville NC: Can you change your DNA in order to prevent Diabetes? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Not at this time. The genetics of diabetes is complicated and involves both genetics and environmental factors such as diet. Q: Geoff Ruth, SF, CA: I have a question about trisomy 21. My understanding is that 3 versions of one chromosome is usually lethal, and that it's not lethal with the 21 chromosome because that's a smaller chromosome with less genetic information in it. Is there such a thing as trisomy 22, since that's the smallest chromosome of all? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Good question! You're right, having an entire extra chromosome is usually not compatible with life. Trisomy 21 is the most common trisomy seen in liveborn children, but, in theory, there can be an extra copy of any chromosome. Some children have been born with trisomy 22, but most of these fetuses are miscarried very early on in pregnancy. Those babies that survive early pregnancy usually die before or shortly after birth because they have many problems. Q: Drew Johnson, GA: Is being a scientist stressful? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: I think any career will have its stressful moments, though I think overall being a scientist is more exhilarating and exciting than stressful. Certainly when a particular experiment isn't going well it can be stressful, but when things work and go well, it is tremendously rewarding and totally makes up it! Q: MEMS Middle per 4: Can you create DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: I've never done it myself, but people can synthesize DNA in the lab using a machine that does the chemistry. You type the sequence you want, into a computer, and the machine goes to work. We can also "create" DNA by doing recombinant DNA experiments that start with existing DNA molecules, and cutting-and-pasting those molecules to rearrange and re-join parts that originated in different places within an organism, or even from different organisms.
Q: JFK MIddle School - New York: Is eugenics true? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question. It is true that there was a movement called eugenics, but the movement was based largely on assumptions about biology, specifically genetics, that were incorrect. Best - Joe McInerney Q: evan wentzell florida: How many years did you have to go to school? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Hi Evan. I went to college for 4 years and majored in Biology. Then I obtained a PhD in science after 5 years of laboratory research. I am now a genetic counselor which required 2 years of training to obtain a Master's degree.
Q: Nick: If someone has Progeria do you know right when they're born or do you have to wait longer? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: In some cases there are some signs when the baby is born, such as certain skin changes. However, in the vast majority of cases, the children look completely normal (even with normal hair!) and it is only around 12 months of age that the disease is first noticed when the hair starts to fall out and the children stop growing normally. Q: Mrs. Forman, Maryland: I was recently diagnosed with lymphoma in my thyroid as a result of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Is lymphoma genetic? Should I worry about my daughter? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There may be a genetic component to Hashimoto's thyroiditis, but the connection to lymphoma is not yet clearly understood. Q: Rebecca, Chicago: Jeff Schloss: Can you tell us about some of the technology used in the genetics field? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Let's talk about DNA sequencing and microarrays. For many genetics experiments we need to know the exact sequence of nucleotides in a relatively long piece of DNA. For that, we use DNA sequencing, either in a procedure that a scientist does with small test tubes and an electrophoresis apparatus, or with a machine that automates the step. If we need to know a lot of short sequences, we can use gene "chips" that are about the size of a dime, packaged in a plastic cassette -- this is called a microarray. Q: Moriah MA: Why are parts of DNA labeled with letters and what do the letters stand for? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Dear Moriah: Thanks for your question. The letters stand for four of the major parts of the DNA molecule: A=adenine; T=thymine, C=cytosine and G=guanine. It's just easier for us to use the letters when we talk about DNA or work with models of the molecule. Best - Joe McInerney Q: Rachel, nj: How do you define "success" as a scientist? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: There are many attributes of a successful scientist. Contributing to the scientific knowledge base through your research is usually the main measure of success for scientists, though the most successful scientists also are great teachers and mentors to the next generation of scientists and health professionals. Q: justine heritage, St. Paul's School for Girls: If hair is dead, how does it carry genetic information? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Good question. You phrased it carefully and that's the key. Hair "carries" genetic information, but that information is no longer being used. But it's still there, because we can recover it to identify the person the hair came from. Q: Virshayna Crooms AOIT: Would it be possible to genetically alter the genes of men to make them the perfect boyfriend or husband? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: I wish! Right now I don't think there is a way to genetically alter the genes of men to make them perfect. A "perfect" husband or boyfriend is somethiing subjective that will change from partner to partner. Thanks for your question. Bola Q: Nathan Newton MA: Can someone have more than the right amount of chromosomes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, a person can have more (or fewer) of the correct number of chromosomes. The correct number is 46. Down syndrome is an example of having an extra chromosome - chromosome 21. Other examples of conditions that have more than the right number of chromosomes include Klinefelter syndrome (47,xxy) and Trisomy 13 and Trisomy 18. Q: Natasza from Newton: Is there anyway to slow down the aging for people who have progeria? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: Up to this point, there has been no way to slow down this process in progeria patients. It is hoped that an experimental drug trial in children with progeria using a class of drugs known as farnesyltransferase inhibitors or "FTIs" might offer some hope for these patients and slow this aging process. This trial is set to begin later this year. Q: Gene Falk, CA.: What do M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N stand for? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: MPH stands for Masters Degree in Public Health. CGC stands for Board Certified Genetic Counselor FAAN stands for Fellow of the American Academy of Nursing. Q: Cassandra Henkell from Swannanaoa North Carolina: Do you think that one day we will be able to have surgery or treatment that will allow us to remove genes that cause us to have diseases in the future? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Humans have about 25,000 genes and need all of these genes to develop and grow correctly. Genetic disorders or diseases with a genetic component are usually caused by mistakes in genes. Removing a gene or multiple genes would disrupt the function of cells and organs and not necessarily treat a genetic disease. Q: Dara Brown Midde School: Whats the best part about being a scientist? A: Brian Capell, M.D.: For me it is definitely the excitement of learning new things about biological processes that might in some way be able to help people with sickness and disease. Q: Evan, Newton, MA: If there is a disease that "runs in your family?" How increased is your chance of getting this disease? Pancreatic Cancer runs in my family. What are the increased chances of this type of cancer? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Adult onset diabetes runs in my family, which means that I have more than one close relative who has been diagnosed with that disease. Diabetes is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. I have a greater risk of developing diabetes than if I did not have a family history of diabetes, but we do not know a specific gene that causes diabetes so I cannot take a test to get my specific risk. Pancreatic cancer is similar. There are a couple of genes that are known to increase risk for pancreatic cancer, but they are not applicable for all families. The best approach to determine your own risk for developing pancreatic cancer is for you or your parents to talk to a genetic counselor. He or she will take your family history and determine if you are at increased risk and if there is a genetic test that would be appropriate for you to take. Q: : Do you believe in the theory of evolution? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question; I get this one a lot, and I'm answering it as an individual and not as a representative of NIH. I do not "believe" in the theory of evolution the way one "believes" in things that one takes as a matter of faith. I accept that evolution is a valid view of life on Earth because the evidence is overwhelming that all life on Earth is related by descent with modification from a common ancestor. Best -- Joe McInerney Q: MEMS Middle per 3: What does DNA look like? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: We can't see single DNA molecules with our eyes. In a very high powered microscope it looks like a dark line against a light background, depending on how it's been prepared. When we purify DNA, it looks like a clear gel, and when it's dry it looks like a stringy white power. If you're asking what the structure is, it's usually described as looking like a ladder that's been twisted (double helix). The rungs are the nucleotide "bases" and the uprights are the sugar-phosphate backbone. Q: ish newton mass: Are all diseases based on DNA disorders or chromosomes from your parents or from another family member? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: All diseases have a genetic component. Some diseases are caused by an extra or missing chromosome that can occur spontaneously in a person and is not inherited from their parents. In some families, chromosome disorders are inherited from parents and other generations. Other genetic conditions such as single gene genetic disorders (cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia) are inherited from your parents, but may also run in a family. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: Do your genes control your ability to process information thoroughly? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Your genes are responsible for controlling most of your physiolgical functions. In addition to what your genes do, we also have to consider the environment and the things we are exposed to and the things we learn. We are still trying to understand how much of who we are is due to our genes and how much is due to our environment. Q: Maya Troeger Los Angeles CA: What are the ethical,legal,and social implications of the human genome project? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: We are not aware of all the ethical, legal and social implications of the Human Genome Project. Some implications that we are aware of are: 1. discrimination 2. privacy 3. protection against stigma 4. decisions around genetic testing and counseling 5. making sure that individuals have access to accurate information on genetics As we learn more information from the Human Genome Project, we can determine other ethical, legal, and social issues and address them. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: Why do we have sequences of amino acids similar to other animals? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The genetic code is the same for all organisms. All organisms on Earth have the same nucleotides (A, C, T, G) composing their DNA. Therefore, the codons code for the same amino acids in all organisms. Q: Morgan Beverly Hills High: What type of bonds hold the two strands of DNA together? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Hydrogen bonds hold the strands together. These are considered to be relatively "weak" bonds. They can be broken by heating, so it's possible to "melt" double-stranded DNA literally by heating. You end up with two single-stranded DNA molecules. Q: Lillian Lugo, Paterson, NJ: After all of your DNA studies, which point of the argument do you side with more - nature or nurture? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Lillian. My view is that the nature/nurture debate is unhelpful. All traits are influenced by biology and the envirnoment. Sometimes the effect of genes is more pronounced, while at other times the effect of the enviroment is more significant - and the situation can change as the environment changes. Best - Joe McInerney Q: erin, alara, and eleanor Spanish River High: Does DNA copy itself? If it does, how many times a day? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA does copy itself. The number of times it is copied depends on how often the cell needs to divide. Cell division is preceded by DNA replication. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: What are oncogenes? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Oncogenes are genes that are involved in causing cancer. Q: Colleen im from L.a CALIFORNIA: what happens during newborn screening? what is newborn screening? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question Colleen. Newborn screening involves collecting a blood sample from the heel of a baby around 24 hours of life. The sample is sent to a laboratory where the blood sample is tested. The purpose is to see if the baby has a genetic disorder, usually an inborn error of metabolism. In most states there are about 25-30 disorders that can be detected by newborn screening. You can visit this website for more information about what is tested in your state http://genes-r-us.uthscsa.edu/. For most conditions on newborn screening there are treatments and early identification can prevent some medical complications. Q: Dara Brown Middle School: What is the most harmful substance to DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Hmm. Not sure about "most" harmful but radiation is very harmful. It can break the strands. Many cells can achieve some amount of repair, but if too many strands are broken the repair mechanisms will be overwhelmed. Radiation can also cause changes in the base sequence (mutations). Q: Chloe, Ma: Why don't I look like anybody in my family, when my brother is practically a photocopy of my mom? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: Siblings share 50% of thier genes. You get a copy of each gene from your mother and another from your father. The gene that gets expressed happens by chance. It is just by chance that your brother seems to have gotten a lot of genes expressed from your mother. Q: Karen, Newton, MA: Do some genetic diseases have a greater chance of being transmitted to a child? Is there a way of determining this? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Yes, some genetic diseases have a greater chance of being transmitted to a child. This depends on how the condition is inherited (autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, X-linked). There is genetic testing available for some but not all genetic conditions. This can help to determine if a pregnancy or child is affected. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: How does temperature affect DNA structure? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Elevated temperatures will disrupt the bounds in the DNA and will cause it to denature (strand separation). Q: Donald Muepo,Los Angeles: Why is sickle cell anemia so important? A: Kate Reed, M.P.H., Sc.M.: Sickle cell anemia is important for a nubmer of reasons. First, sickle cell anemia is a serious disease that affects approximately 1 in 400 African-Americans as well as individuals of all ethnic backgrounds. It is caused by having mutations in both copies of the gene associated with sickle cell disease. Sickle cell anemia causes painful episodes because, under stress, blood cells take on a sickle shape and can get stuck in such a way that blood cannot flow correctly, which causes pain. Second, individuals who live in countries in which malaria is prevelent are less likely to be infected if they carry one copy of the mutation associated with malaria. This helps to explain why sickle cell disease is so common in the population; there is an advantage for having the mutation. Q: Gina Sofia, Texas: Will cystic fibrosis ever disappear simply through evolution? A: Joe McInerney, M.S.: Thanks for your question, Gina. We cannot know what direction human evolution will take or in what environmental situations cystic fibrosis (CF) will be expressed in the distant future. Because CF is a recessive trait, however, many of the CF alleles in the population are in carriers and can continue to combine in affected individuals. In addition, mutation might continue to create new genetic variants that contribute to CF. Best - Joe McInerney Q: Rachel Besser and Lauren Chieffo: What do you think is the most bnefical part of your job? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: I enjoy working with scientists from other disciplines. I am trained as a social scientist and I explore the ethical and social implications of the Human Genome Project but I work with experts in the fields of psychology, public health, biology, chemistry and health communications. Q: Jesus Rios LV: Is there an obesity gene? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Although there have been some genes identified that contribute to obesity, genes alone do not fully explain obesity because it is a complicated disease caused by a combination of several genetic, environmental and behavioral factors.
Q: nathan, bradford: Why is the shape of the DNA ladder an actual ladder and not another shape? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Asking "why" something in Nature is the way it is, isn't really productive. (Why is there air?) But we can sometimes understand what are the implications of the way it is. The ladder structure of DNA gives the opportunity for one molecule to act as a template for the other. This is how DNA replicates (is copied). Q: Michelle, Georgia, and Rachel: Pope H.S., GA: Do you think alchoholism is genetic, if so how could it be treated? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question. People with alcoholism could have underlying psychiatric disease such as depression. We know that psychiatric diseases (depression, biopolar etc) have a genetic component. So it is possible to see many people with alcoholism in a family. We still have more research to do since there are likely many causes of alcoholism. Q: Alma Caso, Texas: Will scientists be able to recreate genomes of ancient, extinct animals? How? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: That is a great question. Based on the sequences of modern day animals, scientists can get an idea of what the genomes of ancient organisms may have looked. Scientists have also beeen able to isolate DNA from ancient species like the wooly mammoth. The re-creation of a species would be quite difficult and we do not posses the techniques to do this, currently. Q: britt and montie: IF cloning becomes possible in the future do you think that the world will accept or rejec it?? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: It is hard to determine if the world would accept cloning if it becomes possible. I hope we can address the social, ethical and legal implications when technology enables us to clone individuals. Information from research a on ELSI will help us assess the public's perception of cloning. Q: Rohan Thaware, SMVCBT, NAGPUR, INDIA: What progress has been made in genetic research on Cystic fibrosis ? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Since the discovery of the gene for cystic fibrosis by Dr. Francis Collins in 1989, research into cystic fibrosis has been extremely active. Efforts have concentrated on the genetic basis of the disease, and on possible treatments such as gene therapy. Q: Marisa Beck Chase Helschien: Will it be possible to make genetically altered mosquitos to prevent malaria? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: This is currently being explored. Scientists have been reseaching the possibility of genetically modifying mosquitos that would no longer be able to be infected by the malaria parasite. Scientists are also genetically modifying male mosquitos that are sterile and no longer able to fertilize the female eggs.
Q: Veronica i'm from Los Angeles, California: Can sunlight alter your DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes! The UV rays in sunlight can alter your DNA and cause skin cancer. Always wear your sunblock! Q: Alex Marton, Los Angeles CA: What is "bio"technology? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Some people consider biotechnology to be the use of biological organisms (bacteria or eukaryotic cells -- plants, animals and people are eukaryotes) to produce stuff, like drugs, proteins or other chemicals. Other people use a broader definition, that includes recombinant DNA, use of devices to run DNA and protein assays such as microarrays and DNA or protein sequencing, etc. Q: holla @ yo grl. spanish river.: I'm looking forward to having a career in this field. Can you tell me what it's like to work with tiny DNA? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It is great to work with something that is so small yet so cool! Understanding what our DNA does is one of the best jobs in the world. The field of genomics has many, many applications. Q: Avi Brown Middle School: What happens when someone has more or less than 46 chromosomes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: It depends on whether it is an entire extra or missing chromosome or a piece of a chromosome. For example, having an extra chromosome number 13 or 18 is very serious causing severe neurologic, respiratory and other problems. And of course having an extra chromosome number 21 is Down syndrome. On the other hand having a missing X chromosome may cause mild learning issues, short stature and infertility. Q: shelby james los angeles ca: 1 what is karyotyping? 2 how does it work? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question Shelby. Karyotyping is the medical term for looking at a person's chromosomes. Usually a blood sample is collected and sent to a laboratory that specializes in cytogenetics (study of chromosomes). The blood cells are grown in the laboratory, stained with a dye and looked at under the microscope. This allows the laboratory to count the number of chromosomes and look at their structure. Most humans have 46 chromosomes but extra or missing can cause a genetic disorder. For example, an extra chromosome 21 is one cause of Down syndrome. Q: vernie, la: is skin cancer genetic? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: All diseases have a genetic component including skin caner. There are rare genetic disorders where people have problems repairing sun's damage to their DNA. Q: Naomi, Newton: How do you suggest someone in middle school who's interested in science get started? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: At this point, stick with taking the science clases offered at your school, and plan to continue that track in high school. You might want to look into summer programs if that's of interest to you as well. But generally, use this time to learn about the specific areas in science you are interested in so that you can focus on those as you get older. Q: : How many nucleotides are in DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: You've asked two different questions. There are 4 different bases in normal DNA, that are nucleosides whose names are abbreviated as A, C, G and T. In the human genome, there are about 3 billion bases if you go from the beginning to the end. But each of your cells has a copy of that from mom and another from dad, so each cell actually has 6 billion bases! Q: cesar: Would changing the DNA in food cause a problem or genetic change in the future generations of the consumer? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: We are not sure how genetic engineering of food affects humans. The more immediate concerns regarding genetically modified foods are related to its impact on the environment e.g will other crops get affected by it? Q: Marisa Beck Chase Helschien: What was the first comercial genetically engineered product? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: It was the 'flava sava' tomato. Q: Mr. Emens, Crooms Academy, Sanford, FL: Are there any summer programs my students could attend to get hands-on experience with Genomics/Biotechnology? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The National Instiututes of Health offers a summer program for students. To find out more, visit the website for trainig opportunities (www.training.nih.gov). In addition, the NIH also has many programs that it suports through its many extramural programs. You can visit the National Human Genome Research Institute's website (www.genome.gov) to connect to some of the summer programs that our grantees support. Q: Emerson CA: When was the NHGRI estalished? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The NHGRI was established as a center in 1989 to lead the NIH's role in the Human Genome Project. In 1997 it became an Institute. Q: Tyler Kimmel, PMWHS: Is it possible to "turn on" genes in our chromosomes that are currrently not be expressed? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Yes. This often happens when signaling molecules, such as hormones, or even medicines and drugs, tell the cell to turn a gene "on" that was previously "off". Q: Kari, LA: When do you perform a genetic test? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are a number of instances where a genetic test may be performed. These include carrier testing to see if a person carries a recessive gene such as for cystic fibrosis. Genetic testing is also used for diagnosis, for example, chromosome analysis for diagnosis of Down syndrome. Newborn screening is another example of genetic testing that is done to identify infants who have a genetic condition such as PKU that can be treated with dietary interventions. Prenatal screening and diagnosis are other examples of genetic testing. Increasingly, presymptomatic and predictive genetic testing is being used to help people know if they are at increased risk for developing a disease such as breast cancer. Q: Max, Holy Family Catholic High School: Where do you go to get a degree in Genetics. A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are many academic institutions that offer degrees in genetics. I got my PhD from the Department of Biology at University of California, San Diego. My research was focused on the molecular genetics of bacterials plasmids. Q: Muhammad Al Jafar, Lebanon: How is linkage used to make gene maps? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Step one: cross two animals that have different and easily recognized phenotypes (characteristics). Record the phenotypes in all the offspring. Step two: do a DNA experiment that tracks which sets of DNA markers move together in the various offspring. Step three: correlate the DNA map with the phenotypes, and you'll be able to build a map that shows which phenotypes correspond to which chromosomal locations. Q: Hannah, Ma: How do you get down syndrome if nobody in your family had it? Is it possible for a baby to get down syndrome if its mother goes on an airplane while pregnant? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Down syndrome is usually not inherited in families. Humans have 46 chromosomes and a person with Down syndrome most often has 47. The extra chromosome is chromosome 21. The extra chromosome is caused by random error when the egg cell is dividing called non-disjunction. The extra chromosome is present before the egg is fertilized so environmental exposures such as flying on an airplane are very unlikely to cause Down syndrome. Q: Julie, Newton: How small is DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Very small! Sorry, I couldn't help it... The diameter of a DNA molecule is about 2 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. A human hair is 100,000 nanometers across. Q: Calculator Man, Spanish River High School: I'm currently in the biotech program at my school. How will this help me if I want to work with DNA as a possible future career? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Studying biotechnology is a great way to prepare yourself for working with DNA! You can study DNA in many different capacities. For example, my master's degree is in biotechnology, and I have worked with DNA sequencing, microarray technology (a way to measure gene expression), and the business and legal aspects of DNA/genetics. Keep studying, you're doing great! Q: Jill, MN: Do you think genetics will lead to a longer life expectancy? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: The information we learn from the Human Genome Project will help us learn more about how our genes and environment interact and inform disease risks. We can hopefully utilize this information to create appropriate interventions and policies that leads to longer life and better quality of life. Q: Avi Brown Middle School: Is our DNA similar to an ant's DNA? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Chemically it's exactly the same. Of course the sequence is different, or we'd be walking around with antennae. Q: vernie from los angeles: do you enjoy your job? i am planning to become something like you because i admire you A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: I hope you become a scientist. We need more scientists with novel ideas. I really enjoy what I do and the people I work with. Q: colby presque isle maine (near canada): what are the most effective treatments for sickle cell anemia. Also, is DNA therapy an option to cure this anemia yet or will it be in the near future? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Treatment for sickle cell disease currently includes medicine for pain control, broad spectrum antibiotics, medications for high blood pressure, and emergency transfusions. Researchers are currently working with animal models such as the mouse on ways to impact this disease using genetic medicine. Q: Sohale Sizar from Philadelphia: Who are the winners of the HIgh school essay contest? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The winners of the ASHG DNA Day essay contest will be announced today at 2pm (EST)...stay tuned! Q: lauren guntner, st pauls school for girls: is there a gene for alcoholism and an addictive personality? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Personality traits (like addictive personality) and alcoholism are caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors. Genetic factors have been indirectly inferred in twin and adoption studies especially for addictive personality. Just keep in mind that knowing about the genes will only tell you one piece of the story. Q: Conor, Maine: where can i celebrate dna day!? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA Day can be celebrated anywhere! Online, in a classroom, some even celebrate by making food that looks like DNA! Q: irene: Do animals get the same diseases we can get or different diseases that we cant get? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Both. Some diseases in animals are very much the same, and that's why we're able to use animals to understand how the diseases "work" and possible ways to cure them. But animals may be subject to different infections, for example, than people are. Q: Tara, North Carolina: What are some of the complex diseases for which genes have been discovered? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The most challenging diseases for researchers and medical doctors are complex diseases. These are the leading causes of death in our time, and include cancer, heart disease, diabetes, stroke. Specific genes have been discovered for all of these complex diseases. Q: Jessica, The Netherlands: How do you know what primer to use when you want to sequence? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: In the case of DNA sequencing, typically, the segment you want to sequence is placed within a vector. A vector is a carrier for the DNA that can be copied. The segment is placed within the region of the vector containing a sequence that is already known. The primers are constructed that allow the segment placed in the vector to be sequenced. The use of these vectors and their universal primers makes the process of sequencing more efficient. Q: Rachel: Have you ever gotten bored looking at DNA? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Well, if you consider that all DNA looks the same, sort of a white stringy substance, than sure, from afar it can seem boring. But in reality, DNA is one of the most exciting things out there! All DNA sequence holds the secret to life. DNA tells us what makes you different from me, and what makes us the same. It even tells us why some dogs are small and some dogs are big! (This was a recent discovery by an NHGRI researcher published in Science magazine earlier this month.) Q: Karen, Newton: What is the difference between human DNA and DNA of other animals? Does it look different? Does it still have the nitrogen bases, etc? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Chemically, they're identical, including the nitrogen bases. But the sequence is different, so that's what makes animals different from each other. Q: lisa HF: Is there a certain gene that causes cancer? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question Lisa. There is not one gene that causes cancer. Most cancers are caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. There are about 25,000 genes in the human genome. Many of these genes are involved in the regulation of how cells grow. If these genes become altered in a cell, the cell growth can become unregulated and this can lead to cancer. Q: lizzie, new jersey: If DNA is extracted from a person's hair and you wanted to try to match it to a person would you need a sample of their DNA from their hair or from any part of their body? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: DNA from any part of your body would work. Q: JFK MS - NY: Is being right-handed or left-handed inherited? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Left handedness runs in about 8% of families. An adoption study suggests a genetic rather than environmental influence. Q: Kari-TN: Why would you volunteer to do this? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: I am happy to share my experiences with you and other students. There is so much that we need to learn about genetics and we hope to share information as we acquire it. Q: Justin,Space: What do you think DNA would taste like? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Chicken. Just kidding! I have no idea. What do you think it would taste like? Q: Libby, HFCHS, Victoria, MN: What is a phenotype? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Phenotype is the physical representation or appearance of the genotype (the information encoded by your genes). For example, having brown eyes would be the phenotype of the gene/genes that code for brown eyes. Q: Kenna Shaw- Bethesda, MD: One student just asked about where to go if they want to study genetics... a listing of all the genetics grad school programs can be found here: http://www.genednet.org/pages/grad_training.shtml A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Thanks for the information Kenna! Q: Youssef Newton Ma: Is it true that a boy would get more traits from his father than mother? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Because boys get their Y chromosome from their mom and their X chrmomosome from their mother, they are getting DNA from both but different genes from each. It is hard to say how many more traits are on the Y chromosome versus the X chromosome it's hard to say if more traits are coming from their father versus their mother. Q: Scott: The question that arose today is about so-called "Junk DNA". What is its purpose and how does it benefit a species from an evolutionary perspective? Do all organisms possess it? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: It seems that all organisms have "junk" DNA. Some have a LOT and others have much less. We're not completely sure what it does. But some scientists point out that "junk" isn't the same as garbage. Junk is what you keep in the attic, just in case you need it. We think that's what's going on with so-called junk DNA - that it acts as storage for pieces of genes that aren't being used, but could be used if it rearranged and new genes were formed that gave a selective advantage to those cells. Also, as we learn more about functions of DNA other than genes, we'll probably reduce the amount of DNA that's considered to be "junk." For example, there are replication signals and undoubtedly signals in DNA that specify how DNA is arranged within the nucleus (this appears to be non-random). Q: Serena Yee, St. Ignacious Prep: What are the better sources the general public can access if it wants to learn about genetic studies? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Since we come from the National Human Genome Research Institute, we recommend using the genome.gov site as a reputable site to learn about genetic studies under the research section. Another especially important resource is the Genetic and Rare Disease (GARD) Information Center that is funded by NHGRI and the Office of Rare Diseases, NIH. Q: Jade Navato HPMS: how is your day when you have to answer all these questions about DNA, do you get a lunch break? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The day is quite fun answering all of these great questions. Keep them coming! And yes, we get a lunch break, we have enough experts answering questions for everyone to take a breather now and then! Q: Katie Krueger, St. Ignacious Prep: What are the other ways of testing for a genetic diseases other than karyotpying? Which way is most accurate? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Other ways of testing for a genetic disease include: DNA analysis for a specific genetic condition such as cystic fibrosis and metabolic genetic testinga used in newborn screening. The type of genetic testing used depends on the indication. For example, karyotyping is used when a chromosomal condition such as Down syndrome is suspected. Q: Mr. Patricks - Las Vegas Nevada - Hyde Park MS: What courses of study should my students take when in college and graduate school to prepare for going into a field of DNA studies? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Hi Mr. Patricks It's a good idea for students to have a broad level of education background in studying genetics. Classes like biology, genetics, and chemistry are basics, but students might also want to explore classes related to computer science, biochemistry, physics, and even public health. All are important pieces of the field in genetics and can help students learn where their interests lie. Q: Paola from Texas: How many years does it take you to become a scientist? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: You are a scientist right now! Anyone who likes to examine the world around them and ask questions about why things are the way they are is a scientist. Often, if you want to study a particular area of science in detail, like genetics and DNA, more study is required. (You want to know as much as possible about the subject, right?) This can be formal study (college, graduate and Ph.D programs), individual study (learning on your own from books or the internet), or practical study (working in a laboratory). Learning is a lifelong process! Q: katie, nj: What are the major steps involved in DNA replication? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: In order to replicate DNA, the DNA double helix must be unwound and then DNA strands are copied resulting in exact copies of the DNA. Q: D. Wilkin, Los Angeles: Can you talk about the interaction between genetic counselors, researchers, other genetics professionals, and the general medical community? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Good question. I think what you are asking is how the genetics community interacts with the general medical community. Genetic specialists help to educate other physicians about genetics by giving talks and publishing papers. I think this is important because genetic testing will be more common in clinical practice. There is an organization called NCHPEG whose goal it is to help with educating the medical community about genetics http://www.nchpeg.org/. Q: Allie Hyde: Does DNA still function after someone dies? A: Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Immediately after someone dies, many of the functions in their cells continue for a little while. Soon they'll run out of oxygen and nutrients and the enzymes, etc. will stop working. The DNA itself remains "functional" to the extent that, if you purified it out of the cells, it could still be used as a substrate for DNA polymerases (such as for PCR). Q: terry, palo alto: What made you decide to have the career you do? A: Adebola Odunlami, M.P.H.: While in college I got a chance to work in South Africa evaluating support programs for women who are affected by HIV/AIDS. This experience led to my interest in public health research. I went on to pursue a Master in Public Health and concentrated on social determinants of health. I learned about the Human Genome Project(HGP) during my graduate studies and decided to work at NHGRI to build on my knowledge on social determinants of health and conduct research on the ethical, social, legal implications of HGP. From my work at NHGRI,I am now interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in health communications. Q: Linda: Is it possible to have a trait your parents don't have? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, it is. Eye color is a good example. If your parents each have brown eyes, it is possible for you to have blue eyes. This is because your parents each have a recessive gene for blue eyes that they each passed on to you. Q: MEMS Middle per 3: can DNA be seen under a microscope? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The DNA molecule cannot be seen under a light microscope, but it can be seen with a powerful electron microscope. Q: Pinaki Basu: Is it possible to cure nurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer's? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There is currently no cure for a neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer's. We are able to treat the symptoms to slow the progression of the disease. Research is continuing in search of a cure. Q: Humphrey-Jordan MS: When did DNA day begin? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA Day began in 2003 as a celebration to the completion of the Human Genome Project and the anniversary of the description of the double helix in 1953. This is the 5th DNA Day and definitely the best one by far! Q: Diana from Texas: What role does DNA play in any mental illness, such as being bipolar, or having schizophrenia? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Mental illnesses are complicated and are the result of a combination of several genes and environmental and behavioral factors. Some researchers have been able to identify that the combination of some genes, gene products (e.g., biochemical markers, environmental factors and behaviors (e.g., parenting styles) are associated with some mental illnesses like bipolar and schizophrenia. Just remember that knowing about one piece of information such as the DNA does not fully answer the complete picture. Q: Libby, HFCHS, Victoria, MN: Do simple organisms like worms have DNA similar to people? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Yes, the worm, known by its Latin name C. elegans in biology, is one of the model organisms we use to study human DNA. In fact, of the 5000 best known human genes, 75% are very similar (have close analogues) to worm genes. Q: Ana and Michelle from Texas: Do your genes define your personality? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Genes alone do not define your personality. Personality traits are a combination of several genes and environmental and behavioral factors. Q: Morgan Springer, St. Paul's School for Girls: What does it take to become a forensic scientist- especially one who works in the field? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: A strong background in science and good communication skills would be recommended. There are many programs around the country that train individuals in the techniques utilized in forensic inverstigation. In addition, there are many different specialties in forensics and knowing what you are interested in help dictate the additional of skills you will need . Q: Nate Glover: Is it possible to genetically alter a fetus to have a certain hair color, eye color, height, weight, etc.? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question Nate. At this time it is not possible to genetically alter a fetus to have certain traits such as blue eyes. It is interesting to think about why someone would want to do this and the implications for society. Traits such as eye color, hair color, height and weight make our society diverse. Q: Dorothy Schuler: Is any research being done with IRNA and Huntington's Disease? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: In 2005, an article in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science reported that researchers used the mouse model for Huntington Disease and were able to use the RNAi for therapy. The mice who were treated had improved behavior. This treatment has not yet been tried in humans. Q: Megan, Coral Springs High: I have a genetic skin disorder called Recessive Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa. Have you ever heard of this disorder and can you tell me anything about the genetics of the disease, such as current research of gene theraoy, what chromosome is affetced, etc? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are three types of Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa. Two forms are recessive and one autosomal dominant in inheritance. I suggest that you seek out genetic counseling with a genetic counselor, nurse and medical geneticist to help answer your questions. You may also want to check the Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association of America www.debra.org Q: Alex Ehrlich, Crawfordsville, Indiana: About how many letters are there in a human genome (all 46 chromosomes)? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.
Q: Taylor Voges Las Vegas ,NV: How many questions do you answer in a year? Do you ever get tired of answering the same question over and over again? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: This is the one day that we get the chance to answer questions like this. Usually we're able to answer about 700-800 questions in a day (which is roughly one question per minute!). The chatroom is great fun, and we encourage creative and thoughtful questions, as we can't quite get to all of them. Keep sending your questions! Q: Luke oczkowski, St Joes High School: What shape is DNA? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: DNA is a double helix. Think of DNA like a twisted ladder. The two beams, or the long pieces on the sides of the ladder, are twisted around each other. (These correspond to the phosphate-group backbones in DNA.) The steps of the ladder (or the four DNA base pairs- A paired with T, and G paired with C) are the steps of the ladder that hold the two beams together.
Q: David Nunn, Bristol TN: Can you change your physical fitness? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: This is good example of where the environment plays a more dominant role than your genetics. Q: Surabhi Pitale, SMV Centre for Biotechnology, India: Why can't RNA undergo self replication? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Actually, some RNAs can replicate. RNA viruses can replicate the RNA that is their genetic material. Q: Terry, Palo Alto: Is handwriting genetic? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Handwriting is a complicated behavior that is the result of a combination of genes, environmental and behaviors factors such as a person being able to coordinate their muscles and dexterity of their fingers, vision, and practice to list a few. Knowing the genetic piece only tells you only a part of puzzle. Q: Caroline, Cape Elizabeth Maine: Are there treatments for Cri-du-chat syndrome? What is the life expectancy? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: No specific treatment is available for this syndrome. Children born with this genetic condition will most likely require ongoing support from a team made up of the parents, therapists, and medical and educational professionals to help the child achieve his or her maximum potential. With early and consistent educational intervention, as well as physical and language therapy, children with cri du chat syndrome are capable of reaching their fullest potential and can lead full and meaningful lives. Q: Rohan Thaware, SMV Centre for Biotechnology, Nagpur India: What are the factors that determine an allele to be dominant or recessive? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Whether an allele is dominant or recessive can be determined by many factors, including factors related to a gene's expression and transcription and its translation. In addition, the ability of a protein to be expressed may be dependent on other physiological factors. Q: Maria (Texas): Can dialysis alter genetic information? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: No, dialysis does not alter a person's genetic information.
Q: josh from holy family catholic high school: How long is the average human DNA strand? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: If we were to isolate all the DNA from one of your cells, it woudl stretch six feet. Q: D. Wilkin, Los Angeles: Can you discuss the importance of learning biology and genetics in high school? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Sure. Think of it this way: biology and genetics continue to shape our world more and more every day. Even people who have never studied biology and genetics have heard of words like 'genes' and 'genetics' and 'DNA'. So if someone studies biology and genetics in high school, they will be more informed about the world around them, and they will understand many of the new and exciting discoveries being made every day that directly affect our lives. Q: AudryeRose Gilbert HPMS: Do you have to take any special classes to have the job that you have? How long did you have to go to school for this particular job? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a great question. I work in the education branch here at NHGRI and went on after college to get a master's degree in Public Health Genetics. Many of my colleagues have their Ph.D.s in various topics, others have their law degrees or medical degrees, depending on what their interests are. Q: Chandler: My mom's side of the family has heart problems, what is the chance that in the future my family could find out who will have these problems? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are many different causes of heart disease, so it depends on the cause of your mother's heart problem. Although genetics plays a major role in much of heart disease, it is not the only factor at play. A person's environment - eating and exercise habits -also play a role. I suggest that you consider genetic counseling to help answer your question. A genetic counselor can help you to gather the necessary family health history information to help you find out whether other family members will develop heart disease. Q: Bartek Patel, Berlin, Germany: Could you explain Genetic Discrimination and how it occurs in scientific life? A: Barbara Fuller: Usually we think of genetic discrimination as an action based solely on the results of someone's genetic test, and not on an actual manifestation of disease or condition. I am not sure what you mean by asking how it occurs in scientific life, but it could happen, for instance, in health insurance or employment if decisions are made on what could possibly happen because of a person's genetic test results rather than whether or not they have an illness or condition. Your question is very timely because at this moment the U. S. Congress is considering a bill that would prohibit genetic discrimination. Q: Amanda Newton MA: What is the most common nitrogen base in DNA? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It depends on the species and on the region of the genome you are referring to. Even within the human genome, there are regions that are AT-rich and other regions that GC-rich. Q: Marshall Mathers - Detroit, MI Holy Family Catholic: If no one in your family has previously had a heart-attack, are you less likely to have one? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Heart disease can be caused by genetic factors. But, you can still develop heart disease even if it does not run in your family. Lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise also play a major role in your risk for heart disease. Q: Heather,Erie One Boces: Are you able to get a DNA profile from urine? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Theoretically it is possible because there are often cells in a person's urine. However, in clinical settings we usually get DNA from a blood sample or from cells on the inside of the mouth (buccal cells). Q: Amie, Denver CO: Dr. Laric: What types of scientific backgrounds do the people you work with have? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Some of the people I work with have studied various scientific disciplines like genetics and biochemistry, while others have studied bioinformatics (the emerging field where biology, statistics and computers intersect to manage and analyze all of the biological data we're generating these days). Still others have studied science education, science policy (this can inform and influence our lawmakers of current advancements in science) or law (for example intellectual property law, which aims to identify who 'owns' the rights to a particular scientific discovery). Q: Giovanna Zanetti, Oratory Schools, Pharr, TX: Is Guillain Barre syndrome genetic? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: Guillian Barre syndrome is not inherited as a disease, but some individuals may acquire GBS in part due to a genetic predisposition, meaning that they have inherited genes that make them more susceptible to developing this autoimmune disorder, after some kind of triggering event. Although the triggering event is often not known, in some cases GBS is preceded by a viral or bacterial infection. Q: Rohan Thaware,SMV Centre for Biotechnology,Nagpur India: There is only 1 percent difference between humans and apes on genomic level then why is there is so much difference at the phenotypic level? A: Vivian Ota Wang, Ph.D.: Isn't it amazing how much phenotypic differences is produced by 0.1% of the genome? What researchers are discovering is how DNA and its products are so complicated in what it does. Combining this with environmental and behavioral factors results in a variety of phenotype differences you see (and don't see). Q: Kathleen: Is animal DNA more difficut to analyze then human DNA? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Sometimes. For example, I know that platypus DNA and dog DNA are really hard to analyze. Who knew? Q: CruzMaria Velazquez: Will genetic screening affect the way insurance works? And will there be any laws made to prevent discrimination? A: Barbara Fuller: This is a very timely question because at this very moment the U.S. Congress is considering approval of a bill that would prohibit genetic discrimination by insurers. This bill addresses the concern that insurers may discriminate on the basis of an individual's genetic test - not whether they actually have a disease or condition. Q: Leilani Morales, Paterson, Nj: Is there a gene in our DNA that shows where we come from? Is there a gene that says I am Puerto Rican or African American? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Your genes tell the history of your geographical origin in a very broad sense. Your genes are also those of your ancestors. Your chromosomes share regions with your parent's chromosomes and each of your parent's chromosomes share regions with their parent's chromosomes. Regions common among groups of people tell the story of human migration over time. Q: Big Al, Idaho: what is a tetrad? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: A tetrad is a four-part structure that forms during meiosis and consists of two homologous chromosomes, each is composed of two sister chromatids. Tetrads are commonly found in yeast and used in their genetic analysis. Q: Terry, Palo Alto: What is the easiest way to take a DNA sample from a living human? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: Any cells of the body are a source of the same DNA in that individual, but the easiest sources are those easily sampled from the outside, most commonly inner cheek epithelial cells. These are obtained simply by scraping the cheek walls gently, inside the mouth. Q: Marifer (Texas): What exactly causes Klinefelter's syndrome? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Klinefelter syndrome is a chromosomal condition that happens in men. It is caused by an extra X chromosome. Usually a man has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A man who has Klinefelter syndrome has two X chromosomes. Q: dana MA: Do all living things have a genome? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Yes. A genome is all the DNA contained in an organism or a cell, which includes both the chromosomes within the nucleus and the DNA in mitochondria. Q: Bonaly Phrasavath, Los Angeles California: Approximately, how many questions do you get a day? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: We get about 2500-3000 questions throughout the day. We try to answer as many as we can, but need to pick out a representative group to answer. We're definitely working away to answer your questions! Q: Tom: How long did you go to school for your job? A: Barbara Fuller: There are many different levels of education within the National Human Genome Research Institute - with some positions requiring a college degree, and others requiring more advanced degrees such as Medical Doctors and/or Ph.D.'s. I am a lawyer, and went to school for 7 years after high school. Q: Greg Hanson, Bristol TN: How long does it take for DNA to replicate? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Could be as short as 20 minutes or as long as an hour. (It depends on what kind of cells your talking about and what organism they come from.) Q: B.B.S.P.Nag, SMV, Nagpur: Is genetic counseling really ethical? Can't there be unnecessary psychological pressure on the human subject? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Genetic counseling is non-directional. This means that a genetic counselor provides all available information to the person being counseled about their particular genetic question. Genetic counselors do not tell patients whether or not to have genetic testing or treatment. That is the patient's personal decision. You can find more information about the definition of genetic counseling from the National Society of Genetic Counselors. Q: Greg Hanson, Bristol TN: What other branches of science are related to genetics. A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics are closely related to genetics in that they are both necessary for understanding genetics. There are clinical branches of science that are also related to genetics like Genetic Counseling, Cytogenetics and medicine in general. Q: Vinnie- Eden Prarie, MN: I heard that you mapped the DNA of dogs. Has anyone mapped the DNA of other animals? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The genomes of many other organsims have been sequenced including, the chicken, the fruit fly, horse, cow, chimp, cat, plants, rhesus macaque and zebra fish just to name a few. Q: Billie: How much of genetics is unkown to scientists? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: While we know a tremendous amount about genetics, there is still a lot we don't know. We come up with more questions to answer every day! Q: Kristen, Crooms, Sanford, Florida: Are occupations in the field of genetics increasing? Which do you prefer? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, there are many occupations within the field of genetics, and they are very diverse. Individuals with backgrounds related to law, ethics, policy, sociology, computer science, and many other fields are required within the broad field of genetics. Personally, my background is in public health, which I find very interesting. Q: Arya from san diego westview: What affects us more, the environment or genetics? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: We don't really know at this point in time. We do know that they both play a role in health and disease. For some diseases genetics likely plays a larger role, while in other diseases environmental factors including lifestyle (e.g. diet and exercise)play a more important role. Q: Mike New Jersey: Is there a gene that makes you a good distance runner? A: Barbara Fuller: The most important element in making you a good distance runner is the hard work and exercise a good distance runner endures in training. There may be a gene that could help in muscle formation, etc., but this gene alone could not account for someone who is considered a good distance runner. Q: James west from LOS ANGELES: whats is a genetic disorder? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: A genetic disorder is a disease that is caused by an alteration in an individual's DNA. Alterations can range from a small mutation in a single gene to the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Q: Ryan, HFCHS Mpls: Can a person rearrange their DNA to look like some one else? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It is very difficult to rearrange DNA on purpose. Also, rearrangements can result in bad things happening. At this point in time, we do not have the ability to accurately rearrange DNA or to retroactively impact are physical attributes. Q: Rich: What made you want to become a scientist? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: I enjoyed science classes in middle school and high school. I went to college as a pre-med student but decided that I was just interested in the biology of people and not really treating them. I enjoy being a scientist because there are so many unknowns and many opportunities to learn things that no one knows. Q: Kate: How common are genetic mutations? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: As Dr. Francis Collins often points out in his public talks, no-one has a perfect genome. The average person has 20 - 30 misspellings in their genetic code. In many cases these misspellings may not amount to anything significant. In other cases, they may predispose a person to serious disease or health problems. Q: : How long did it take you to get as far as you are in your career? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I have been in the field of science for more than 20 years and doing science education 7 of those years. Q: Brandi,Crooms Academy,FL: What experiences did you have in college? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: I had some wonderful professors who taught me a lot about science. I also played ultimate frisbee and was in a West African drumming ensemble. If possible, study abroad for a semester. Don't be afraid to learn new things! Q: Greg Hanson bristol Tn: How does evolution affect a species gene pool? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Evolution acts over very long periods of time to remove genes that effect an organism badly and to keep genes in the gene pool that favor an organism's survival. Q: Thomas Muntaner, St. Ignacious Prep: What is your opinion on the idea that people or companies can own our fragments of DNA under a patent? A: Barbara Fuller: DNA patenting is not necessarily a bad thing because the patent system is designed to encourage companies to be able to profit from their research. However, there are times when companies have used their patent to make it difficult for individuals to get tested or to receive treatment. Q: Estrella Luna, Crawfordsville, Indiana: Are there any special clothing that you have to wear when you work with the DNA- like masks, gloves, etc.? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: There are special safety things we wear depending on what experiment we are doing. Lab coats are often worn and latex gloves are worn for almost everything. The hazards of certain chemicals require us to wear masks and eye protection. Q: alli and Abby from Florida: What is the different between your phenotype and genotype? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: A person's phenotype is their physical appearance. A person's genotype is their genetic make-up. Q: Caleb Rasmussen, Crawfordsville, Indiana: How much does the most expensive machine you work with cost? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: The DNA sequencers I've worked with cost about $350,000 each. We have 14 in our lab! Q: Tyler Burdett HPMS: how much do you guys get paid????? A: Barbara Fuller: The pay for guys (and girls) working at NHGRI has a very wide range - depending on the level of education and the level of responsibility. For instance, some individuals at NHGRI have both an M.D. and a Ph.D. and direct some of the scientific programs - or the entire institute. There are other individuals who perform more technical work, so their salary would be a little lower than those who are in charge of a scientific research project. Q: Brenna Lewis, Fox Lake, IL.......Hyde Park MS: What is it like to conduct genetic experiments? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Fun! Q: tom: How was the discovery made that bases are read in threes? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: From the National Library of Medicine website Profiles in Science (http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/) Nirenberg and Matthaei created a synthetic RNA molecule outside the bacterium and introduced this RNA to E. coli. They found that their synthetic RNA specified that phenylalanine, an amino acid, be added to the end of a growing strand of linked amino acids, the precursor to proteins. Nirenberg and Matthaei concluded that traces of uracil had directed the synthesis of phenylalanine. On the RNA strand, synthetic RNA made of multiple batches of three units of uracil directed an amino acid chain composed entirely of phenylalanine. One three-unit batch of uracil could be read as UUU (poly-U), which was a three-letter shorthand method or "code word" for identifying phenylalanine. Nirenberg and Matthaei quickly realized that this was the messenger that they had been looking for. Their experiments proved that "messenger RNA," which transcribes genetic information from DNA, directs protein synthesis. That is, messenger RNA transmits the DNA messages that prescribe the assembly of amino acids into the complex proteins that drive living processes. Q: Anthony, LaRocca Crooms Academy, Sanford, Florida: When the DNA nucleotides are copied onto a messenger RNA and the polypeptide chain does not have a stop codon is this a possible mutation of the DNA itself or does it not become copied? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: It is possible to have a mutation in the DNA sequence that changes a stop codon to an amino acid codon. This will alter the sequence of the polypeptide chain that is read from the RNA. The resulting protein could be harmful by doing the wrong job in the cell or it could be a neutral change. Sometimes these defective proteins are degraded by the cell before they can have an effect. Q: Kat: Is behavior coded in DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a difficult question to answer. Behavior is incredibly complex when it comes to finding the genetic contribution, if any, because the environment plays such a strong role. Many research studies are going on to determine if there are genetic contributions to behaviors, and what those might be. Q: Rachell Douglas: IF you were interested in Genetics... is becoming a scientist a good idea? if so... why? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Becoming a scientists is one of the ways to study genetics but there are many careers that also relate to genetics like genetic counseling, medical genetics, forensics, patent law, bioethics and others. There are a number of diverse and interesting careers. Q: sarah cisek, St. Paul's School for Girls: Does saliva contain DNA? Why is it that police swab people's mouths? A: Pnina Laric, M.S.: Yes, saliva contains DNA. Police swab the inside of people's mouths (their cheeks), to get a sample of their cheek cells. Forensic scientists, who work in conjunction with the police, can then purify the cheek cells to get to the DNA. Q: Ann,palo alto: Does DNA determine how smart you are? A: Barbara Fuller: DNA alone cannot determine how smart you are. Being smart is a direct result of hard work - studying, reading, etc. If there were a gene that could assist in being smart, that gene alone would not be sufficient - and needless to say that there would be individuals considered to be smart that do not have the smart gene. Q: evan, MA: how much more time do you think it will take to finish the human genome project? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The Human Genome Project was completed on April 25th, 2003, fifty years to the day that Watson and Crick described the structure of DNA. That is why we celebrate National DNA Day on April 25th! Q: Morgan Crooms Acadamy Sanfor Fl: How do cells make accurate copies of DNA? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The molecule responsible for replicating the DNA is known as DNA polymerase. This molecule is very accurate and has many mechanisms to ensure that few errors are made during DNA repliaction. The error rate for DNA Polymerase is less than 1 error per a billion nucleotides replicated. Q: Britany Wright, Crawfordsville, Indiana: How long did it take to decode the friut fly genome? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: The fruitfly genome was sequenced in about 2 or 3 years. This genome was decoded using a shotgun sequencing method. This is the faster of the two methods used at the time and relies on computer assembly of short sequences without an underlying physical map. A physical map is created with much experimental work analysing the actual physical organization of the chromosomes. This type of effort was done before the human genome was sequenced to ensure that the assembled sequence was accurate. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: How many people worked on the human genome project? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a great question. There were thousands of people who contributed to the Human Genome Project, from all over the world. It took 13 years to finish, so you can imagine all of the people who played some role in the work. Q: geoff, newton: If 99.9% of everyone is the same doesn't that make it easier to find what makes us look different? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: No, actually it makes it harder. A good example is the rhesus monkey sequence which was just published which is 90 - 93% the same as the human genome. And that difference is enough to help us identify some of the differences that might make us human. Another good example is the chimp DNA which was too similar to human DNA (about 98%) to determine which genes might be making a difference. Q: britt and montie bristol: What has been the greatest accomplishment and disappointment in the mapping of the human genome? A: Barbara Fuller: Certainly one of the greatest accomplishments as a result of the mapping of the human genome is all the many breakthroughs in human health. We continue to experience many breakthroughs in diagnosing and treating many different diseases and conditions. New breakthroughs are announced on almost a daily basis. The greatest disappointment is that there are still many illnesses that have not had medical breakthroughs in spite of intense and concentrated research. Q: sylvie and Kyle, Spanish river high: Yes or No. Do you like working with DNA? Just type YES OR NO. Thanks A: Barbara Fuller: YES! Q: Julia R, Dry Ridge, KY: Could the common cold be cured with the knowledge of DNA that we have today? What about in the future? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The DNA information that we have today provides a basis for eventually understanding and hopefully curing common conditions such as the common cold.
Q: Giovanni Crooms academy, Sanford: How do proteins recognize specific sequences of DNA? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Proteins that bind to DNA recognize specifc sequences and bind to them. Q: Deborah im from baltimore: If one of your parents have any disease or cancer will you get it to? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Some diseases can be inherited in families - passed on from one generation to the next generation. Other diseases occur sporadically in a family. For instance, a parent or family member might develop the disease later in life. If you have a concern about a particular disease in your family and your chance to get it, I suggest that you seek genetic counseling. A genetic counselor can take and review your family history and talk with you about your chances to get the diseases your parents may have. Information on where you can get genetic counseling can be found on the GeneClinics web site. Q: Maya Troeger Los Angeles CA: Are recessive genes passed down every other generation? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Recessive genes are just like dominant genes in the way the are passed down. They can be passed down in every generation. Recessive genes can only have an effect on the organism (cause disease for example) if it gets two copies, one from each parent. Q: sophie and marielle, spanish river high school: What is DNA profiling? A: Barbara Fuller: DNA profiling essentially means making an assumption about someone based on their DNA, and without any other characteristics. For example, making a determination on someone's appearance based on their DNA - when their actual appearance may be very different from what you suspected. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: Have you recieved questions from anyone outside the United States? A: Barbara Fuller: Yes. If you look at the transcript of today's chat room, you will see many questions from people from other countries. Look at the questions coming in early this morning, and you will see questions coming from Europe and India. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: What four bases are in DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The four bases of DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Q: Amanda Crooms Acad. Sanford Florida: Will we ever be able to clone a dinosaur? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: That is an interesting questions. Although we have isolated DNA from dinasour species, cloning a dinasour with current cloning techniques would require that we had viable cells from a dinosaur species that we could manipulate and a surrogate host for the resulting embryo. Unless we can find an easier mechanism for cloning, it may be a long while before we can clone a dinosaur. Q: Martin: Can someone change their DNA structure through some new technology? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Not yet. There are efforts to develop methods to alter certain genes in a person's genome to cure disease but these have not been very successful. Q: Andrew, San Diego: What are some of the most common genetic disorders? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Currently around 4,000 genetic disorders are known with more being discovered. Most disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common genetic disorders: around 5% of the U.S. population carry on copy of the defective CF gene. Q: Ashley: Do you think we will ever be able to construct DNA to where we can make the perfect person? A: Barbara Fuller: OK - so define "perfect person." Defining the perfect person is very subjective, so I doubt we could ever reach consensus on what constitutes the perfect person. However, even if we could define the perfect person, I don't believe we would ever want to construct the perfect person. Q: Hudson Miller, Crawfordsville, Indiana: What is your specific job working on the genome project? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: As a graduate student, I created the physical map for a region of the X chromosome. This physical map was used to verify that the DNA sequence of that region was correctly organized. Now, I create physical maps and generate DNA sequence of the same region in multiple primate genomes. Comparison between genomes helps us understand how chromosomes have changed through evolution and develop testable hypotheses about why these changes have occurred.
Q: Veronica, California: Does what what you eat and drink have anything to do with your DNA? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: There are two ways to answer your question. Your genes (DNA) can influence what you eat and how you eat. In fact, a large number of genes have been associated with obesity, and some of these genes can influence (but not absolutely determine) whether a person has certain food cravings, uses binge eating to relieve stress, or overeats, in general, resulting in obesity. The other way to interpret your question is whether what you eat can affect your DNA. What you and most people ordinarily would eat or drink, even if it's not a healthy diet, like too much sugar and fat, or too few healthy foods, probably has no effect on your genes, although there is controversial and weak evidence that certain kinds of foods, like broccoli, may contain anti-oxidants or other chemicals that can help the body protect against cancer, which involves mutations in the DNA of cells. However there are important examples of chemicals you can ingest that CAN affect your DNA and genes, such as when what you eat, drink, or breath contains chemicals that are proven mutagens. One of the best known examples of such mutagens are those in cigarette smoke, that can strongly increase a person's chances of developing lung cancer.
Q: Jane, Coral Springs FL: My little brother couldn't speak until he was around four. Is speech delay something genetic? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: Speech delay can be genetic, especially when associated with other findings, such as part of a syndrome. But speech is a complex trait that is influenced by many factors, including environmental exposures. Speech therapy can be very helpful, especially when started early. Q: Henry, MA: If hair doesn't have DNA in it then why to people take a strand of hair to identify people in the movies and stuff? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: While hair is made of protein and probably doesn't contain much DNA the roots contain dead cells that all have DNA in them. Strands of dead hair that fall out often have a bit of root attached that is the source of the DNA. Q: St. Ignatius College Prep High School: How does one go about patenting a gene? When new information is constantly altering our understanding of genes/control, is it practical to patent a gene? A: Barbara Fuller: Patenting a gene means you have not only identified the scientific values for the gene, but you have also identified the functions of the gene. You are correct that new information is constantly altering our understanding of genes, but there are scientifically proven and substantiated qualities that should not change with further research. Q: Ash CSHS: Why do twins run in families? What causes a woman to be more inclined to have twins if someone else in her family had twins? Are twins genetic? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Identical twins do not run in families, and a history of fraternal twins has influence only if it comes on the mother's side. Identical twins come from the same fertilized egg and are sometimes called monozygotic, which means they share the same genes and DNA. The frequency of identical twins is the same everywhere, about 4 in every 1000 births. Fraternals come from two different eggs. They are really like any two siblings who happen to be born at the same time. Around 12 pairs of fraternal twins are born in every 1000 births. Q: Stephanie Narine, palm beach lakes: How are human DNA different from animal DNA, such as dog or cat DNA? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: All DNA has a double helix structure and is comprised of the same four bases and a phosphate backbone. The sequence of the bases is sometimes different and the types of genes are sometimes different. Many genes are the same between organisms - they have the same sequence, the proteins they code for do the same thing and they are expressed in the same cell types. We are now trying to determine which genes or parts of our DNA make us uniquely human by comparison with the chimpanzee genome sequence. Q: Big Johnson-TN: Why did you decide to be a scientist? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: I ended up in science after trying out several other careers. I worked in computers and in photography among other things. I was always interested in science, and the idea of being an explorer and learning new things that no one has ever learned before drove me towards science. It's great to be able to go to work and play with expensive tools and discover new things. Q: JD Furr, Crawforsville, Indiana: Does DNA determine how long cells will live (or the number of times they will divide)? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The DNA is responsible for dictating when the cells replicate. The life span of a cell depends on the type of cell. Some cells will replicate many times and very quickly and other cells may only replicate a few times during their life spans. Q: joe ward: Why do scientists even care about DNA? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: DNA is pretty neat stuff! :-) There are many reasons we're interested in DNA. It is a major component of all life and its simple structure contains the instructions to make all of the proteins and all of the materials that make up us and all of the living things around us.
Q: Geoff Ruth, SF, CA: Carla, I think it's worth pointing out that Crick and Watson essentially stole their x-ray diffraction data from Rosalind Franklin -- who probably (possibly?) would have arrived at the structure of DNA on her own. Many folks think that she would have received the Nobel prize as well if she had not dead of cancer. A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: You raise some very valid points. Q: : What is your opinion on the ethics of cloning humans and other creatures? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: In my personal opinion, I think there could potentially be negative societal consequences to cloning humans. Human behavior is very complex. I think much care would have to be taken to understand what impact cloning humans would have on how we interact with each other. In terms of cloning animals, that is already being done for research purposes and those procedures are overseen by animal review boards. Q: Christina, Crooms, Sanford FL: How much of your genes takes a part of your physical state? (fitness, speed, height, etc....) A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: Your genes definitely influence your physical appearance, such as hair color, eye color, and height--this is why siblings often look so similar. In terms of fitness and speed, these features are more likely influenced by how much a person trains and takes care of their body. Q: Landon Hargrove Palm Beach Lakes: Can DNA be destroyed? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: DNA is easily destroyed if it is not in the right environment. DNA is a negatively charged molecule and will degrade fairly readily. It usually exists coated with proteins that protect it, package it and read it. DNA degradation is one of the primary reasons that it is hard to get DNA from fossils. Recent advances in technology have allowed for sequencing of DNA from a Neanderthal fossil. Q: Nikki K: How can just one chromosome that is defective effect a child so severely? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: The human genome contains about 20,000 genes, and normal versions of many of these genes are essential to normal development and a healthy body. Each of the 46 chromosomes we inherit from our parents (23 pairs from each) can contain hundreds to thousands of genes. So the loss or disturbance of even a small portion of one chromosome can cause severe disease, or possibly no disease at all. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: How expensive is some of the equipment that you use? Our Biotech teacher always goes on about how expensive his micropipets are. A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: We use quite a bit of very expensive equipment in our work. Because we work at the cutting edge of technology we have to pay a lot for our equipment. I use a lot of fairly large computers that run in the 100's of thousands of dollars. The smaller sequencer in our lab I think was about 80 thousand. (I try not to think about it). The biggest expenses in the lab are actually what we call consumables; the chemicals, enzymes, and other materials that we use. Q: Rebecca, Chicago: What is RNA restriction and what does it do to the organism it occurs in? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: RNA restriction is the cutting or digestion of RNA. The restriction of RNA can cause the shortening of RNA. Q: Kylie H.: How do karyotypes work? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: A karyotype is the total chromosome complement of an organism. Karyotypes are often determined to detect abnormalities in the chromosomes that may cause disease. A cytogeneticist takes a picture of the chromosomes through a microscope and then analyzes them against a known control. Q: brittany, bradford high school: If a childs mother is artifically inseminated is it possible for the child to have DNA extracted to find its father? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: DNA testing could be used to help establish the identity of the father. But it would require DNA samples from both the child and the father. There would first have to be some other means of identifying who the parent is and the DNA test would be merely a way to confirm. Q: joe m newton mass: If other primates keep evolving, will they become like us and invent complex machines, like cars? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: Other primates are evolving and continue to evolve. A misconception many people have is that evolution tends to push towards more complexity or intelligence, but that isn't always the case. Evolution isn't necessarily directional so that even though primates continue to evolve there's nothing about evolution that says they have to become more (or less) intelligent. We were recently surprised to see even more advanced and extensive tool use among chimpanzees, but I think it is not too likely they'll be inventing cars in the near future. Q: Cate, Superior WI: Approximately how many questions do you get asked in one hour?? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Between 1 and 2pm today, we received 790 questions! This is definitely a record for this chatroom. Keep the questions coming! Q: Chichinomaco Vaerikalianlioe from Venezuela: Could you please describe the process of transcription and translation? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: During transcription in the nucleus, the DNA ladder is separated into two strands. One strand is read by a protein molecule called RNA polymerase that assembles a complementary RNA molecule as it moves along the DNA. When a stop codon is reached, the polymerase releases the RNA which is then transported to the cytoplasm where the RNA sequence is decoded by a ribosome to create a protein. Q: Danni: What can middle schoolers do to get more people to be involved in National DNA Day? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: A great idea is what you are already doing...logging into the chatroom! We also have great webcast presentations that can be seen at www.genome.gov/dnaday. Or, you can do a simple experiment to extract DNA from strawberries. There are many demonstrations of this on the web. Have fun! Q: emma, newton: Was any part of the genome project figured out before Watson and Crick started their investigation? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Watson and Crick published the structure of DNA in 1953. At that time, it wasn't even known what the unit or mechanism of heredity was. It wasn't until 1956 that we knew that humans have 46 chromosomes in each of their cells. These could be considered the earliest stages of the human genome project, but the official project as it is now known was not begun until 1990. Q: Gabby G: Do you think that great medical advances are on the horizon with developing research of DNA? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: The sequencing of the human genome and other animal genomes is definitely speeding advances in understanding and treating human disease. But most common diseases, especially ones believed to be caused by several genes working together, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, are still so complicated to understand that even though great progress will likely be made on such diseases in the future -- at least in part as a result of the new genetic knowledge -- progress will still be gradual and take time. Q: Pricila, Castaneda, Los Angeles, CA: I've heard that fish odor syndrome is a disease, I wonder if you could die of that disease? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: Trimethylaminuria, also known as fish odor syndrome, occurs in some individuals who have difficulty breaking down certain foods. The fishy body odor is the primary feature of the disease, although there have been reports of high blood pressure after eating certain foods. It is not a disease that leads to premature death, but affected individuals can become isolated or feel stigmatized because of their body odor. Q: Tlin, Urban: Have scientists determined what environmental factors affect which traits in children? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: There is ongoing research to examine the role that our environment plays in the disease process. As people we are a product of our genes and our environment. Our genes can also interact with our environment and influence our health or risks for disease, but the magnitude of this interaction is still being investigated. Q: Jordan Newton: Is a genome just a cluster of chromosomes or is it just something the chromosomes sit on? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: A genome is the total DNA content of a cell. We generally don't use the term to describe something outside the DNA in the chromosomes. Q: Jojo From Newton: Does DNA have a color? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Nope, when DNA is isolated, it is clear. Q: Briana Carroll, St. Ignatius College Prep: In which new fields is genetics becoming important (i.e. medicine, farming)? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Genetics is becoming increasingly important in many different fields including medicine, law, politics, forensics, pharmacology...genetics has certainly played a role in these fields for awhile, but as we learn more and more, the roles are continuing to evolve. Q: the mazzanator and the stevens: What does radiation do to DNA? A: Mary Schueler, Ph.D.: Radiation causes chemical modifications in the DNA that make it unrecognizable to the normal protein machinery that repairs it. Q: Ryan,McDowell: When was DNA day first established and celebrated? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: DNA Day was first celebrated in 2003 with the completion of the Human Genome Project and the 50th anniversary of the description of DNA by Watson and Crick. It continues to be an exciting celebration each year! Q: : Did you guys enjoy science when you were in middle or high school? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: Yes, I really enjoyed science and math in both middle and high school. I also had the opportunity to take advanced science and math courses in high school that helped prepare me for college courses. Q: Lappi; Clarkstown North High School, New City, NY: champanze's and humans have 98% similar DNA, what technology was used to discover that? What traits do we share? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Comparative anlaysis and bioinformatics techniques were used to compare the sequence of the chimpanzee to humans. Because the human and chimp genomes are so similar, there are more genes that we share than are different. Q: Dan Eggan Ridgewood High School: 2. How close has gene splicing come to radically altering a specific life form? How close to creating what could be considered a new species have geneticists come? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: Genetic recombination has allowed us to insert new genes into animals and plants, but it is a slow and difficult process so only a few genes have been inserted or removed at a time. Bacterial genomes are easier for us to manipulate right now so they've been extensively modified by scientists, but they tend to exchange genetic material naturally between species anyway. Q: Krissy Cozzi: If identical twins have the same DNA, why do twins' personality differ so much? Does that suggest that personality is not genetic? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Good question Krissy. Identical twins do have the same genetic information and their personalities can be different. Environment, meaning where you grow up, can definitely influence personality but there is a genetic component as well. The genetics of personality is not well studied and more research is needed. Q: Taylor, Las Vegas, NV: If the human genome project was to find out the first 3 billion base pairs of the human body system, but everybody has different genes, how would you do that? Or do you just pick a random person? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Everyone has the same genes although there is variation between individual genomes. When the genome was sequenced a number of different peoples' genomes were used in the sequencing of the genome. Q: Allen Trang: Is PCR a possibility in the high school classroom? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: It certainly is. The way we do PCR in the lab is to use fairly expensive machines called thermocyclers. They're basically fancy machines to heat up and cool down tubes. The same effect can be had using water baths at different temperatures and manually moving tubes between them. It's not the easiest thing to do, but that is actually how PCR was performed in the lab before thermocyclers were commonplace. Q: Joe Sanford, nj: What is an allele? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: An allele is one of the variant forms of a gene at a particular locus, or location, on a chromosome. Different alleles produce variation in inherited characteristics such as hair color or blood type. In an individual, one form of the allele (the dominant one) may be expressed more than another form (the recessive one) Q: shinnea wpb,fl: is it possible for someone to have yellow eyes? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: It depends what part of the eye you are asking about. I have not seen yellow irides (the part of the eye that is usually blue, green, brown). It is possible for the sclera to be yellow, also called jaundice. This is a transient finding which is really just a symptom of something else going on in the body. Q: maggie ny,ny: Will there be another opportunity for students to have their genetics questions answered by your staff or will students have access to your answers after today? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a great question. Today is our main opportunity to answer your questions, but we will certainly keep the ones we don't get to today. The transcript from today's chatroom will be available at www.genome.gov/dnaday. You'll be able to search the transcript to see if we were able to answer your question, or to search for a specific topic. Q: Addie, MD: What are the most known genes for diseases? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Currently, we know of between 1800 and 1900 genes associated with diseases. Q: Alyssa, Madison: Is there any special or right way to celebrate DNA day? What do you do besides work in the chat room? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: As part of DNA Day, many of our researchers at the National Human Genome Research Institute have been busy visiting schools in the southeast region of the country. They visit and talk about genetics, their jobs, and what interests them about genetics. We hope that students will take the opportunity to learn something new about genetics, and see why it is such an exciting field. Q: Joseph Egan Fafinski, Peter Isaac Ripple, Holy Family HIGH: Does DNA determine how smart you are? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: How well we peform intellectually is based on a number of factors including study habits, school & home environments, and genes. An individual may be born with a great ability to learn and grasp new concepts but if that ability is not nurtured it may never be realized to the fullest potential. Q: Ali, Minneapolis: Is Down syndrome hereditary, and if so, what is the DNA dysfunction? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: Down syndrome occurs when an individual has three copies of chromosome 21 (usually an individual has two copies of the chromosome 21). The features of Down syndrome are the result of the extra DNA material. Q: Louise, madison: What is the most significant enzyme involved in DNA synthesis? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: There are many enzymes essential in DNA synthesis, but I'd say that DNA polymerase is pretty significant. That's the enzyme that chemically adds one base at a time complementary to the template strand. Q: Matt, dublin ireland: How long is the human genome? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The human genome is about 3 billion base pairs in length. If we were to to stretch out all the DNA in one of your cells, it would stretch 6 feet. Q: Heedeok from Keller, TX.: How effective is gene therapy in combating cancer? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: Gene therapy holds promise for combating certain cancers by replacing or suplementing defective genes involved in the development of cancer. But even the most advanced forms of treatment are still in the experimental phases of clinical testing. One serious barrier to effective gene therapy is finding safe ways to deliver the gene or genetic change to the correct site in the body, without damaging other normal tissues or organs. Q: Lisle Whitman, Bristol: About how long would all the DNA in all the human chromosomes be if it were strectched out? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It would be 6 feet in length. Q: Sejal, L.A. Palm Middle School: What is Prenatal Testing? If a mother find that if the fetus inside of her has disorders do you think that doctors would be able to cure the disorders if the fetus is still inside the mother? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Prenatal testing is the term for a group of tests that can be done before the baby is born. This can include chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis which can look at the chromosomes of the fetus. There are some disorders that can be treated while the baby is in utero (inside the mother). For example, in some cases the disorder, spina bifida, which is an opening of the spine can be surgically corrected before birth. Q: Brooke: Are there any man-made mutants? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: There are many man-made mutants, just as there are many natural mutants. Each of us actually has de novo (new) mutations within our own DNA, unfortunately none that we know cause supernatural powers. Q: Jasmyne R. California: Do chickens have DNA? A: Gary Temple, M.D.: Yes, chickens, like all other animals have genes that are made of DNA. Some primitive forms of life, like viruses, however, use RNA instead of DNA to carry their genetic information. Q: jasmine b, westchester ca: Does every pregnant mother have to take a prenatal test? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Pregnant women go to the doctor often to check on how the pregnancy is going and how the health of the mother is. Pregnant women can also be offered a number of tests to try to assess the health of the fetus. These can include blood tests, ultrasound screening, an invasive tests like amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling (CVS). None of these are mandatory or required and each woman or couple can decide which tests they want (if they want to have any at all). Q: Emma, Brown Middle School: If we already found out so much about DNA, why is the rest so hard to figure out? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: That's the great thing about science, you'll always have something to study. With all we know about DNA there's still far more than that still left to discover. While we know the basic structure of DNA and the sequence of the human (and other) genomes we still know very little about how genes are regulated. Q: MM: Have you heard about the pain disease Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy or Complex Regional Pain Syndrome having a genetic Link? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: There is no known genetic cause for reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) which is a neurological condition. There is a lot of research being done to understand this disorder and you can find more information at http://www.rsds.org/.
Q: Alondra, Los Angeles: How long does it take to finish a full genetic test? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: This is actually a difficult question to answer because it depends on the genetic test that is being done. There are cytogenetic tests that look at chromosomes, molecular tests that look at individual genes, and biochemical tests that look at the breakdown of sugar, fat, or protein. The length of time varies--tests looking at chromosomes can take a couple of weeks because cells need to grow in the lab. Some molecular testing can be done faster because techniques like PCR can be done in 1-2 days. Q: Viktoriya B: What does radiation do to DNA? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: Radiation can chemically alter DNA or cause breakages in the DNA. It can also chemically alter other things in the cell that interact with the DNA and cause damage that way. Each of our cells actually has extensive machinery to repair damage to our DNA caused by radiation, but it can't always repair all of the damage. Q: Ashleigh Kringel: Will the genome ever evolve in drastic ways that could effect the human race in a negative way? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: This is a really interesting question, actually. The answer is yes, it could. If you think about it, evolution is largely influenced by the environment. So, let's imagine that global warming in fact occurs. It is possible that humans will genetically adapt to the new conditions. However, imagine that a comet then hits the earth, cutting off sunlight so that the earth cools dramatically. Then the same evolutionary adaptations which made humans better suited to a warmer environment (say, being super-sweaters) might be negative in a new environment (where the sweat will get rather icy). Part of the reason this question is interesting is that it relates to the question of whether or not humans should control evolution. What if we decide that everyone should have a certain trait (which seems like a good idea at the time), but which is actually maladaptive if the environment changes? Q: Lorissa, FL: How do external factors change a gene? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Mutagens cause mutations within an organism's genome. Radiation is an example of a mutagen. In addition, the manifestation of a genetic disorder can be affected by an individual's environment, including aspects of their lifestyle, like diet. Although these environmental factors may not be physically changing the genes they can still affect the expression of the gene. Q: Charlie, CSHS: Are all syndromes and disorders predetermined by our genes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Genes certainly play an role in both rare and common diseases. However, the environment (including lifestyle factors like diet and exercise) also have a role. So a person can have a genetic predisposition to a disorder such as cancer or diabetes, but this does not mean that they have a 100% chance to develop the disease.
Q: Steffi from St. Paul's School for Girls: How do autoimmune diseases occur in the body? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: The main job of your immune system is to protect your body from foreign substances and infectious agents. This is actually a very complicated thing to do since the immune system needs to recognize what is foreign and what is from you ("self") and then mount a very specific attack against the foreign substance. This is a big part of the problem in autoimmune disorders - the body inappropriately attacks parts of the body because it thinks that those parts are foreign. Q: Hill Top Preparatory: Can depression be passed down from your mother or father? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Depression does have a genetic component and we do see families where a mother/father and child both have depression. But genetics is not all that is involved with depression, environmental factors such as life experiences definitely play a role. Q: Amanda D, Westview: Are there contagious diseases, like Turner syndrome, that have to do with chromosomes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Turner syndrome is a chromosomal disorder, not a contagious disease. Turner syndrome occurs when a female inherits only one X chromosome from either her mother or father (instead of having the usual two X chromosomes). Turner syndrome usually occurs sporadically. Q: Stephanie Young, San Mateo, CA: Hello, Could you direct me to the link that announces the winners of the National DNA Day Essay Contests. The website said it would be located here, but I can't seem to find it anywhere. Thanks! A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Sure, the winners should be posted on ASHG's website at www.genednet.org. But if you make your chat window show 100 postings, you can find the announcement by looking at the timestamps. We announced the winners right around 2pm today.
Q: Krissy: Do you think genetics will have a larger role in our society in later generations? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: Yes. Genetics will definitely play a larger role in our society. There is research being done to understand if medications can be developed to treat people based on their individual genetic makeup (personalized medicine). Also it is possible that more genetic tests for disease risk will become more available for use by the public. It will be important for us to understand the ethical, legal and social implications as this research unfolds. Q: Kj from Newton, MA: How common is a mutation in the DNA? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: DNA mutations are very rare when you consider how much DNA is there. Some scientists have estimated that 10 or so new mutations happen within each generation of people. But when you consider we have more than 3,000,000,000 bases in our genome that's a pretty small amount. Q: Hilltop Preperatory School: I struggle with a couple of different emotional disorders, one of them is Seasonal Affective Disorder. Is this caused by genes and, if so, how? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: Seasonal Affective Disorder is pretty common (around 1/2 million people in the United States), but at this time is not known to be inherited. Light therapy can be very helpful, but you should speak with your doctor first. Q: Alec Mallinger Colby Barton, Spanish River Community High School, FL: can radiation mess with your genes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: yes, for example UV rays from the sun (a type of radiation) can cause skin cancer. Q: Miles Davis Plam Beach Lakes: How is it possible to choose the sex of your baby? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: There are actually a number of different ways to sort sperm based upon whether it carries an X or Y chromosome. These approaches can filter sperm based upon size (one sex is larger), or by using a dye which can distinguish between X and Y bearing sperm. You would then use the filtered sperm to fertilize the egg. At this point, none of these approaches have a perfect success rate, they just increase the likelihood of getting a baby of one sex or the other. Q: Greg Hanson From Bristol TN: Have all of the genes and the traits they code for been discovered? What are some examples of the genes they have found? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: We have probably not discovered all the genes in the human genome. About 1800-1900 genes associated with genetic diseases have been discovered. The gene for hemoglobin, genes related to Alzheimer's disease, the gene related to Cystic Fibosis, and genes associated with pharmaceutical metabolism are examples. Q: Jore, Palms Middle School,Los Angeles,CA: What is the most common genetic disorder? Also, what is the percentage of a person being born with a genetic disorder? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: There are many genetic disorders and one of the most common is Down syndrome, which affects about 1 in 700 babies. It is caused by a person having an extra chromosome 21. All pregnancies have a 3-5% chance of having a birth defect. However some genetic disorders do not show up until later in childhood or even adulthood. Q: Casey Olson: Is Alcoholism in the genes or is it a choice? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: There are scientists who are studying whether there are genetic factors associated with addiction to substances such as alcohol. Human behavior can be influenced by genes, the environment or a combination of the 2. Hence, it is not likely that alcoholism will ever be linked to just genes or just choice. Q: Artie Chearsamran: Is it possible to be colorblind in more than just green and red? What in your DNA makes someone colorblind? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: The cells in your retina (the back of your eye) that are responsible for perceiving color are called cone cells. Many different genes are important in these cells to allow them to work properly. Although red-green colorblindness is most common, there are many other problems a person can have in their cone cells that cause other types of color blindness. For example, a genetic coundition called achromatopsia can cause a complete inability to see color. Q: Jim Bob Bristol TN: How old are you? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I am 39 years old Q: Charlie Evans Cold spring harbor: Michael Crightons new book just came out, and it has a lot to do with DNA, one of the things that I was curious about was that in the novel every trait that a person has could be isolated down to a gene, such as the "Comfort gene" and the "exhilaration gene." Is this possible to do? And if it is, what are some of the other genes that have been isolated? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: I haven't read the book, though I'd like to, so I hope I understand the question. Most of our traits are what geneticists call "complex traits" which means that they have a complex genetic origin so there isn't just a single gene or a single allele that controls them. Single genes can have an effect on individual traits, such as propensity to alcoholism, however their effect is moderated by environmental effects and the effects of many other genes. The genetics behind behavioral traits such as exhilaration are ususally quite complex and difficult to study because the effects of environment are so strong. Q: Jae C.: If you have the gene for a certain disease, does that mean that, know matter what you will have the disease. A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: It depends on the disease. For example, a person who has a gene for hereditary breast cancer has an increased risk to develop breast cancer. On the other hand, a person who has the gene for Huntington disease has a 100% chance to develop the disease. Q: Lauren D. Westview: What is the DNA mutation that causes an extra thumb? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: There are over four hundred genetic conditions that can cause extra digits, and it is also possible for a person to just have extra digits without any other health problems. Having extra digits on the thumb side of your hand or the big toe side of your foot is called "preaxial polydactyly" and it can be caused by a few different genes, including LMBR1 and GLI3. Q: Emily Pascual: Do you think the movie GATTACA would relate to our world in the future? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: I think that any story that tries to think about what the future would be like could be useful in thinking about the future. The key is, the future is yet to be decided, and we have the opportunity to try and direct it. The neat thing about GATTACA is that it does a fairly good job of suggesting possible directions that technologies could take. I would say, however, that the capacity of genetics to predict future disease risk appears to be overstated. Much of disease risk is related to environmental factors. Q: Prepie: After RNA creates strands of proteins, where do those proteins go and what do they do? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The proteins produced can perform a variety of functions. Some of these functions need to occur in the cell or outside the cell. Consequently, some of the proteins stay within the cell and others are transported outside of the cell. Also, some proteins combine with other proteins and can stay within the cell or travel out of the cell. Q: jessie hoffer from pals middle scholl in LA CA: What is an amniocentesis? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Good question Jessie. An amniocentesis is a procedure that a pregnant woman undergoes to learn more about the health of her baby, specifically to determine if the baby has one of a few genetic conditions. Some of the fluid surrounding the baby is removed. This fluid called the amniotic fluid contains some of the baby's cells. The cells are grown in the laboratory and examined to determine if the baby has a problem with his/her chromosomes. Q: Ridgewood HS, OH: What advances have been made in understanding how master genes turn on and off? Have geneticists been successful at turning any master genes on? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: Regulatory genes such as transcription factors can turn on and off many genes at once. In model organisms such as fruit flies geneticists have done many experiments modifying developmental regulatory genes and causing all kinds of strange phenotypes like legs growing out of their head. Q: : Della White, what is the Human Genome Project and why was it created? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: The Human Genome project was taken on to sequence the 3 billion base pairs found in DNA, identify all of the genes and to make this information available to the public. You can find more details about this project and others like it at www.genome.gov Q: Taylor Phillips-Corliss Palms Middle School: How different is the DNA of fraternal twins? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Fraternal twins share approximately 50% of their DNA. This is the same amount of DNA that full siblings share. Q: Allen Trang: What careers are available to those seeking an M.P.H.? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: There are a variety of careers for those wiht an MPH depending on your interests. For example, if your interests are in epidemiology or biostatistics, you might be involved with public health research. My degree led me to a job in education and community engagement. It's a pretty broad career with many opportunities. Q: C. Berg Springfield, MO: In a DNA extraction using a common detergent, how is the cell membrane disrupted? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: When you do DNA extraction with detergent the cell membrane gets disrupted because it contains an oil-like layer that dissolves in soapy water just like oil and soapy water will mix. Q: Sharnelle Berkley: What is the most important thing about DNA day. A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The most important thing about DNA day is for students to get an idea of how exciting the field of genetics is, and why genetics will continue to play a role in human health in the future. Q: Max Hutchens HFCHS: What happens to our DNA after we die? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: When we die our DNA is left in our body, over time it will break into smaller pieces and slowly degrade. DNA is actually quite stable and under most conditions will last quite a long time. Q: Zelda: Is epilepsy a genetic disorder? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: There are some genetic disorders that have epilepsy as a feature of the condition. However, seizures can also occur as the result of a head injury, an infection such as meningitis, or poor blood supply to the brain during birth--to name just a few. Most often, the cause of seizures remains unknown. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: Our Biotech class recently transfered a pGLO gene to E. coli. Would scientists be able to do the same with more complex organisms? How about pets? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: This has been done in other organisms. To my knowledge, besides bacteria, plants, zebra fish and a bunny have been transformed with a similar gene to the one you used. Q: Brett, St. Ignatius College Prep: What are the imitations, or what should the limitations be when using genetics in the courtroom? Can violence be justified by one?s genetics? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: The first question is fairly hard to answer, because when you get into legalities and the use of evidence one probably needs to be a lawyer. I would simply state that a minimum requirement would be that the genetic information would need to be accurate and reliable. As for the second part, the general answer is no. Human behavior is highly complex, and is not entirely controlled by genetics (with perhaps some rare exceptions). Therefore, personal responsibility cannot entirely be deferred by claims that the the cause is genetic. Q: BHS Student 3: Is it possible to be born without an immune system? If so, can you create an artificial one? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: People with the genetic condition, Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID), have problems with the function of their immune system. They can receive a bone marrow transplant to improve their immune system function. An artifical immune system is currently not available to treat people with SCID. Q: Katie R San Diego, CAlifornia: How can you find out if you are homozygous recessive or homozygous dominate or heterozygous for a certain trait? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Homozygous recessive means that a person carries two copies of a recessive gene such as cystic fibrosis. A person who is homozygous dominant has a gene for a dominantly inherited condition, such as Huntington disease, from each parent who has or will develop the disease. A person who is heterozygous for a certain trait carries one copy of the gene for the trait and one normally functioning disease. Tests can be run in a clinical setting to determine if the trait you are worried about is one of these. Q: mhardgrave ny,ny: Are autoimmune diseases genetic? Are there triggers that cause it to start? Does having a strong immune system cause the mistaken response to be worse? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Autoimmune conditions can have a genetic component and there are genetic conditions where part of the condition is having problems with the immune system. An example of a genetic condition that involves autoimmune problems is called Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome. If someone has a strong immune system that helps the person fend off disease. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: How often do scientists use DNA in their work? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It all depends on the type of work the scientists does and their field of study. Molecular geneticists would be an example of scientists who use DNA in theior research quite often. Q: Stephanie Narine, palm beach lakes: Does Biotechnology have a lot of math? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: It can. There are many different specific fields within biotechnology research, some of which require quite a bit of math, and some that don't. In research most people will have to have a basic understanding of statistics to interpret research results. Most of my friends who are molecular biologists have to use some basic algebra and statistics, but not very much more than that. Computational biology on the other hand can be very math intensive. Q: Bobby Magee Hfchs: Does color blindness genetic? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes it can be genetic. Red/Green color blindness is the most common type of genetic color blindness. It can also be caused by environmental damage to the retina Q: BHS Student 7: Can you change the DNA in transplant organs so that they will become compatible? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Not at this time. Since every person's DNA is unique and because DNA is present in every cell of an organ, it would be difficult to change the DNA in a donor organ. Q: Bobby magee HFCHS: Sarah Harding what are different careers for working with genes? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: There are many careers that involve genetics in some way. Some are the more traditional careers, that involve research in a lab or at a computer. Other careers combine different fields with genetics, such as law, ethics, policy, public health, art, writing, the list continues to grow. We need a diverse group of individuals to be involved in the field of genetics and to continue to keep the field as interesting as it is. Q: liz Khitrik MA: How many different types of behavior dieases are there? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: Many diseases have a behavioral risk aspect, particularly complex common diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. These specific health conditions can be influenced by exercise and dietary behaviors. Q: Erin and Marissa Florida: Is there a gene that decides what subjects in school your good at? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: I doubt it, but we honestly don't know yet. Most personality traits will come from a complex combination of the environmental and genetic inclinations. To the extent that they are genetic, they will probably be caused by the interactions of many genes, not one. Therefore, it seems unlikely that knowledge about a gene would predict your abilities in a specific topic (particularly since the environment is a random variable). Q: Bobby Magee HFCHS: Can you get cancer if your parents or relatives have it? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: It depends on the type of cancer. There are some types of cancer that are known to be inherited. If an individual inherits a gene with a known mutation, then that person's risk for cancer is increased. It is very important to review your family history with your doctor and discuss any concerns you may have. Q: Kenzie and Shelby, Minnesota: What are the chances of getting cancer if your great grandfather had cancer, but no one else in your family? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: That depends on the type of cancer your grandfather had and when he developed it. If you are able to get that information, you could send your inquiry to the Genetics and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center, funded jointly by the National Human Genome Research Institute and the Office of Rare Diseases, National Institutes of Health. Q: celeste Levey, Los Angeles: Is there a way that someone who studies DNA can come to our school and teach us more about DNA?? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: The American Society of Human Genetics has organized a great network called the Mentor's Network. It can be seen at www.genednet.org. You can search for speakers in your region and contact them to invite them to your classroom...they are right in your own backyard! Q: Chris: What are the leading causes of DNA damage and can you provide any insight into the new drug, PTC124? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: The new drug PTC124 is being used in clinical trials to treat boys with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. For more information visit www.mda.org. Q: Ross Pugatch: Are there and discoveries you have made studying DNA? Also, what are some things scientists are currently trying to figure out about DNA? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: We've discovered that regions of the genome that are very similar between species and that don't code for proteins frequently are involved in gene regulation. Right now I'm trying to understand how different mammals are related to each other using DNA sequence information. One of my co-workers is trying to understand the genetics of dyslexia. Q: Jackie: is it possible for somemone to have more than 46 chromosones? is it possible to have less? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Most people have exactly 46 chromosomes and our chromosomes come in pairs. It is possible to have an extra chromosome - we see this in genetic conditions like Down sydndrome, which is caused by having an extra chromosome 21. Having less than 46 chromosomes is less common. Some ways that a person can have less than 46 chromosomes is if they carry a chromosome translocation, which is when two chromosomes break and reattach end to end, or if they have a condition called Turner syndrome, which occurs in girls with just one X chromosome instead of two. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: How long does someone need to be in college to get a good job in DNA research? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It depends on what type of job you would like to do. Someone who is working in a DNA research lab would likely have at least a bachelors degree. If someone is thinking of running a lab, they will probably need training in addition to their bachelors degree, and many research labs are run by individuals with graduate training. Q: JACK Smith, PALMS MIDDLE SCOOL: Why is DNA important in today's society? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: Genetic information has been getting a lot of attention lately because it could potentially be used for a lot of medical and non-medical purposes. There is considerable debate about whether these different applications are ethical or not, so it has become a major social and political issue. Q: Ashley Florida, CSHS: What are the possibilities, for the future, to prevent some genetic disorders? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Mapping the human genome has enabled us to find out more and more about genetic disorders. This information is expected to enable scientists and medical researchers not only identify and better treat genetic disorders, but also prevent them in the future. Q: Danni: Where on this website can you find the experiment to extract DNA from strawberries? It sounds like fun! A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: We don't have the protocol on our website, but you can find one version at http://genome.wustl.edu/outreach/edu_rsc/DNA_protocol.cgi Q: Mike Rotch: Is achondroplasia dominant or recessive? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Achondroplasia is one kind of dwarfism. It is caused by an autosomal dominant gene mutation. A person who has one copy of the dominant gene mutation will have achondroplasia. Having two copies of the dominant gene mutation for achondroplasia is not compatible with human life. Q: Ms. Faulconer, Surry County High School: What is the most curable genetic disease? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: There are very few if any genetic diseases that are curable. However, many genetic diseases are treatable. The inborn error of metabolism, Phenylketonuria or PKU, is an example of a disorder that is treatable. People with PKU have an enzyme that is unable to convert phenylalanie to tyrosine resulting in a build-up of phenylalanine in the body. Increased phenylalanine can cause damage to the brain. Most children with PKU are on a special diet and/or formula to limit the phenylalanie in their diet. Q: Blair Cohen & Veronique Adam, Spanish River High: Does DNA entirely determine how smart someone will be? What about how hard they work, or if they do everything ontime? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: In most cases, it is fairly unlikely that genetics entirely determine personality traits and mental capacity. A persons environment and education plays a key role as well. That being said, it is possible that genetic information will be able to suggest inclinations towards certain characteristics. Q: Shianne R: If we know how genes work, then why haven't we found a cure for cancer? A: Wendy Introne, M.D.: We are learning more and more about genes and their function, but there is still much more that we need to know. There are many scientists around the world trying to understand what causes the different kinds of cancer, but again there is much work left to do--perhaps by an inspired young scientist like you. Q: Ryan Shakopee: Is there such a thing as a stop anti codon? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: The anticodons that match each of the amino acid coding acids are matched on the tRNA. To my knowledge there isn't a tRNA-like RNA molecule that matches stop codons. Some people have suggested that there are short polypeptides that act as anticodons to assist with termination of translation. Q: Andrea Mansourian, Anna Worch: How can the green fluorescent protein function in jellyfish when they do not have a functioning immune system? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The green flourescent protein that is utilized was originally isolated from the jellyfish, Aequorea victoria. Q: Chris R. Westview: Why do certain disorders and diseases show up in certain generations? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Genetic conditions can be inherited in families in lots of different ways. For example, some conditions are inherited in a way that is called "autosomal recessive." This means that a person with the condition has inherited a gene change from both parents. Even though both parents carry a gene change, neither parent has the condition. For families with autosomal recessive conditions, we usually don't see affected individuals in multiple generations. The gene change is present in many people in the family even though they do not show signs of the condition. Other conditions are caused by "autosomal dominant" gene changes. In these families, affected individuals can be seen in multiple generations. Q: Serena Yee: What is the most common misconception about DNA testing? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: This is difficult to answer. One common misconception is that the technology is currently available to perform a genetic test on all of our genes. We have about 25,000 genes and genetic tests are only available for a few of them that cause genetic conditions. Q: Ryan McLear, CSHHS: Is Chrons Disease a genetic disorder? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: A recent study found a strong genetic link to Chron's disese. Scientists have identified a handful of genes that boost the risk of developing Chron's disease, confirming that the this inflammatory bowle disease has a strong genetic component. Q: Chichichichichichino: Genetically, how different are men and women? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: Men and women differ by one chromosome. Men have an X and a very small Y chromosome. Women have two copies of the X chromosome instead. The Y chromosome is very small and has only a very limited number of genes on it, while the X chromosome is very large and very gene rich. Genetic diseases that are more represented in males such as color blindness are frequently caused by genes on the X chromosome because men only have one copy of that gene so if there's a problem with that one copy there isn't another copy to compensate, while women have two copies. Q: Andrea, Anna: What is the differnece between beta-galactosidase and a beta-galactosidase gene? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The beta-glactosidase is a protein (more specifically an enzyme) that is encoded by the beta-glactosidase gene. Q: maggie ny,ny: Are safeguards in place to limit access to genetic testing information? Do you think there should be? Is there a forum for public input on the question of how and by whom personal genetic information can be used? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: Most genetic testing services have protections in place to protect genetic information, as do holders of medical records. However, there remains the possibility that the information could get out, and it is generally acknowledged that there needs to be stronger legal protections. As for the public input, there are some opportunities for involvement in the legal process. One could also contact your representatives to ask that they support and encourage such legislation.
Q: joe m newton mass: What is tour favorite genome to look at? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I would say that one of my favorite genomes would be the duck-billed platypus genome because it is very different from other genomes that have been sequenced. In addition, it has some very unique features. Q: Austin Anderson: Is it possable to repair mutations in two sex cells and then form the zygote. A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Thanks for your question Austin. Right now the technology is not available to repair a genetic mutation in a sex cell such as a sperm on an egg. Q: sophie and marielle, spanish river high school: Who was the 200th inmate released from prison because they were proven innocent by DNA fingerprinting? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Jerry Miller was exonerated yesterday by DNA evidence. Visit http://www.innocenceproject.org/ for more information. Q: corey newton: Why did you want to become a scientist? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I have always enjoyed science and I loved the idea of doing experiments that could help solve problems. Science gave me an opportunity to learn something new everyday and also to talk about and teach the things I had discovered. Q: Kiara, California: What are some of the factors that contribute to alcoholism being passed down among generations? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: People have observed that alcoholism can cluster in families for a long time. For most families, both environmental and genetic factors contribute to alcoholism. Even though many people are researching this problem, we might never understand what all of these factors are and how they contribute to alchohol dependence. Q: Dan Eggan Ridgewood High School: Do you envision a day when a family physician would need to have our genetic profiles just like our blood profiles and family history? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: It is possible. A lot of people optimistically assume that genetic information will prove to be very helpful in a general clinical context. However, that really remains to be seen. It may be that the expense and complications of dealing with genetic information will inhibit its use in practice. The promise of personalized medicine is intriguing, but certainly should not be taken as a given. Q: juanito, Teapa: What are the possibilities, for the future, to help prevent genetic disorders? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Gene therapy is one possiblity for the future that may help to treat or cure genetic disorders. There are currently clinical trials using gene therapy for a few conditions. Q: Mazza and Freeland: What was one of your greatest accomplishments in your career? Why? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Wow, what a great question! Of all of the things I have accomplished (becoming a Board Certified Genetic Counselor; publishing articles in the nursing and genetics literature;authoring two genetics books for nurses) the greatest accomplishment has been the 20 years that I worked in a public health genetics clinic in Maine helping and supporting families who were seeking answers to their genetic questions. The reason that I went into the field of genetics in the first place was that my mother and her brother died at an early age from a genetic condition and there was no one in the health care or our community who could answer our questions and support us. I am most pleased that I was able to help as many families as I could over this time. Q: geoff, Newton: If DNA doesn't tell how smart you are, but how are some people born with a higher reasoning ability? A: Della Brown White, Ph.D.: There are probably some genes that play a role in our ability to reason; however, those genes have not been identified in that capacity. Environmental factors such as study habits and quality of education are important to consider when thinking about an individual's intellectual capabilities. Q: jason anguiano: Is it possible to die from fungi? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: The answer to this depends a little bit about what you mean by "fungi." Sometimes a fungal infection can be quite serious, for example, for a person who has a problem with their immune system. Q: guillermo from trinity pawling: how is the human gemone project helpful to the future? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: The human genome project has opened up the opportunity to conduct research that would have been difficult or impossible previously. The resulting information could have important social and health conseqences. Q: Emma Collins: Do frogs have DNA? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Yes, like all living things, frogs have DNA. Q: michael, palms middle school: What is mtDNA? A: Arjun Prasad, B.S.: mtDNA is mitochondrial DNA. We actually have a seperate very small genome in each of our mitochondria (small organelles that generate energy for our cells). Because it is in the mitochondria outside the nucleus unlike nuclear DNA all of our mitochondrial DNA comes from our mother and isn't 1/2 from our father and 1/2 from our mother. Q: Stephanie Narine, palm beach lakes high: Can DNA be determined before a child is born and how? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: A child's DNA can be tested before birth through a procedure called amniocentesis. However, this is not done routinely and only indicated when a fetus is at risk for a genetic condition, for example when there is a family history.
Q: Tiffany, Brown Middle school: Do people know what makes some people really small, like 3 feet tall when they grow up? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are a many causes of short stature (like being3 feet tall). Having a genetic condition called achondroplasia, a form of dwarfism, causes a person to be small in height. Smallness can also be caused by environmental factors such as poor nutrition or lack of medical care. Q: cam: Do vegetables have Dna because I dont like them A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Yes vegetables have DNA. You can even extract DNA from an onion as an experiment. Q: Gerald: How many years of school have you been in to be at the position you are at right now. Did you always want to be what you are right now? How do you like your job? A: Christopher H. Wade, Ph.D.: Wow... this question makes me feel old. I have spent 4 years in college, 5 years as a doctoral student, and I have recently decided to return to get a masters in public health (another 2 years). Ok... I'll admit it: I actually like school. There is something really cool about being in a job where you want to keep on learning. That being said, you don't necessarily have to be in school this long to do scientific research. As for my interests, I have actually been wanting to do this sort of work since I was in high school... where I first started thinking about how science influences society. So, I feel very lucky to be doing what I am right now. Q: Anna, Scranton Preparatory School: Do food preservatives have an effect on DNA? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: Not sure that's ever been shown-good or bad. It's known that diet influences our risk for certain illnesses and food preservatives are a component of that. Hopefully future genomic population studies will be able to define these environmental influences more specifically. Q: Dorie: What is Jean Jenkin's favorite song? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: Sara Smile by Hall & Oates Q: JP from New Jersey: I am curious to know why genetic counseling is done for parents following the birth of a child with Down syndrome, since Down syndrome is not an inherited condition. A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Parents who have a child with Down syndrome are offered genetic counseling partly because even though most cases of Down syndrome are caused by having an extra chromosome 21, a small percentage of cases are caused by inherited chromosome rearrangments. Parents of children with Down syndrome could also be considered to be at increased risk for having another child with a chromosome problem because of the mother's age. Another reason parents might want to talk with a genetic counselor could be to give them the opportunity to talk about some of the psychological issues surrounding the birth of child with special needs. Q: PATRICIA MARREN!: From you're point of view do you think genetic disease are being more understood and we are closer to curing them? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The mapping and sequencing of the human genome was completed in 2003 and this is leading scientists and researchers to better understanding of many rare and common genetic diseases. These advances area also leading to more targeted, gene-based treatments, especially in cancer. Q: MM: Is Acid Refulx (GERD) genetic? My mom, myself, and my grandparents have this condition. A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: The genetics of GERD has been recently studied in twins in Sweden. It was found that identical twins who share 100% of their DNA were more likely than fraternal twins who share 50% of their DNA to both have GERD. This suggests that there is probably a genetic component to GERD. Researchers are interested in studying the genes involved in the development of GERD. Q: Joe, Minnesota: How does it feel to be on the cutting edge of science? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Exciting! All scientists are really on the cutting edge. It's one of the really exciting things about doing research. You're asking questions in the lab that no one else knows the answer to. Q: corey newton: was is so exiting about being a scientist A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: I am involved with research on a few genetic conditions. The most exciting thing is to make progress on understanding the condition and share that information with the patients who have the genetic disease. This gives us all hope for future treatments. Q: Lauren Arnold: How is diabetes passed down genetically? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Most cases of diabetes are probably caused by both genes and factors in a person's environment such as thier diet and activity level. One goal of the Human Genome Project and other genetic research is to better understand the interactions between our genes and our enviroment and how these interactions contribute to health and disease. Q: Jaclyn, New York: Is Autism more common in boys or girls? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Experts estimate that three to six children out of every 1,000 will have autism. Males are four times more likely to have autism than females. Q: bobby, palo alto, california: Is hair loss genetic? A: Jennifer Sloan, M.S., Ph.D., C.G.C.: Hair loss can be genetic and in some cases can follow X-linked inheritance. Male hormones and environmental factors can also play a role. Q: Lauren, Cape Elizabeth ME: Did Abe Lincoln really have Marfan's Syndrome? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Some geneticists believe that Abe Lincoln had Marfan syndrome. The reasons they believe this is that Abe Lincoln was very tall and had very long limbs and features. However, we can only speculate based on photographs and paitings of him. Q: Miles Davis, Palm Beach Lakes: Is there actually a gene for obesity and can it be turned off? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: Like many diseases, the causes of obesity are complex. Multiple contributing factors (biological, biopsychosocial, behavioral, environmental) intertwine to influence outcomes of genetic predisposition to anything. The search for contributing genes continues with the hope of targeted interventions in the future. Since more than 600 genes, markers, and regions of chromosomes have been linked to obesity it'll be quite a challenge. Q: Siobhan, MA: Why can't monkeys talk? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It appears that even though we are very similar to chimpanzees (we share 98% of our genomes) there are genes that differ between us. Scientists are exploring the reasons why chimpanzees don't talk. It has been speculated that the inability of chimpanzees to speak may be related to hearing and possibly the differences between chimpanzee and human voice boxes. The foxP2 gene has been implicated in speech development of many organsisms. A number of primates, such as chimpanzees and gorillas, make forms of the FOXP2 protein. The primate form of the protein is different than the form made by humans. It is believed that this difference in the forms of the protein may be a reason why humans can speak and primates cannot. Q: victor, newton ma: doesnt the brain control our body? why do we have DNA A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: You're right when you think of the brain as being "in charge" of things like moving our muscles, thinking, and talking. However, our DNA is the blueprint our bodies use to grow and develop. Our DNA is organized into genes which are the instructions our bodies need to make proteins. Our brains need special kinds of proteins called "neurotransmitters" to tell our bodies to do things we want to do, like move and talk, and things we don't even have to think about, like breathing, digesting food, and having a heartbeat. Q: catherine and quackers: Have you figured out the genome for a duck? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The genome of the duck has not been sequenced. Q: marjau sauve palms middle school: What is pharmacgenomics? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Pharmacogenomics is a science that examines the inherited variations in genes that dictate drug response and explores the ways these variations can be used to predict whether a patient will have a good response to a drug, a bad response to a drug, or no response at all. Q: Jarrett Hyde Park Middle School: Is being intelligent caused by your environment or genes? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Intelligence is neither just your genes nor just your environment. It's a combination of the two. Regardless of whatever potential you may hold, intelligence is mostly dependent on how hard you work and study. Q: Mike M. from Cape Elizabeth High School: Could serious diseases like AIDS and Cancer be wiped out in the future by DNA manipulation and gene therapy? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The mapping and sequencing of the human genome was completed in April 2003. This has created many new avenues of genetic research that are leading scientists to have a better understanding of the genetic component of many rare and common diseases. Researchers are also finding ways to target treatment of conditions such as cancer based on a person's or the specific tumor's genetic make-up. The goal for the future is to develop gene-based therapies to treat serious diseases like AIDS and cancer. Q: Dalton Holcomb Las Vegas, Nevada HPMS: What does a clinical advisor do? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: I am a nurse with an idea of the potential implications of genetic research for future health care. That perspective helps me to provide guidance to NHGRI on the educational needs of healthcare providers such as nurses, physicians, and others. Then I help develop resources to prepare those in clinical care settings to learn more about genetics and think about how that can improve patient care. Q: Liz HFCHS: I almost had spina bifida when I was little. Faith, how can you get spina bifida? How can you prevent it? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: When a human embryo is only 3-4 weeks old, a tube forms that will eventually develop into the spinal cord and brain. If this neural tube doesn't close properly, it can result in improper development of the spinal cord (spina bifida) or brain (anencephaly). Spina bifida is a complex disease, meaning there are many factors involved, and each case can differ. The best way to prevent spina bifida is for the pregnant mother to make sure she isn't deficient for folate (a vitamin). Since the evidence for this is so strong, in 1998 the FDA mandated folic acid supplementation of all grain products in the US. So every time you eat cereal, or finish your pizza crust, you're boosting your folate levels. This was done in a huge public policy effort to reduce the occurence of spina bifida, since most mothers don't even know they're pregnant in time to take folic acid supplements. Q: Landon Hargrove palm beach lakes high school: How is it possible that identical twins can result in different races, for example one is black and the other is white? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Technically, identical twins have the same exact DNA, so we would not expect them to look different. It is possible for non-identical twins to have different fathers if woman ovulates more than one egg and sperm from more than one man is present at the time of ovulation. Q: Sam Bailey, St. Ignatius College Prep: How does the Human Genome Project plan to educate a society that does not have all the information? Do researchers feel a responsibility to educate people on this growing field of study? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: We hope that programs like National DNA Day will help to educate people on the importance of genetics and will inform people on the effect of genetics on health. As genetic technologies improve it is necessary that the public be informed about them so that usefulness can be maximized. Q: BHS Student 12: Can you change the DNA in a mother's egg to make her baby tall, blonde, or blue eyed? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: At the moment no, such changes are not possible to make to an egg. I would challenge you to think about whether we should use this kind of technology to alter someone's looks if it were possible? Q: jj plam bach lakes hight: What will happen if DNA is mutated? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: It all depends on where the mutations occur. If the mutation occurs in the coding region or promoter region of a gene, alterations in the protein or the protein's expression can occur and these alterations can lead to genetic disorders. If the mutations occur in non-coding regions, the effects have unknown implications. Q: Patricia: Do you think people in the future might have to copyright their DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That's a tough question to answer because it brings up whether you think people can 'own' DNA. I do think that individuals' DNA should be protected from potential misuse. At this very moment Congress is voting on a bill that would prohibit genetic discrimination by others such as insurance companies or employers. I do think people should be confident that their DNA won't be misused.
Q: Stephanie Narine, palm beach lakes: What is the best way to take DNA from a human? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA can be isolated from a variety of places. For example, blood, saliva, hair, and urine can be some of the sources of DNA. Q: Benjamin matias: Who is your boss? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I directly work for Jane Peterson who is an associate director of my division at NHGRI. She is a long time participant in the Human Genome Project. Q: Reed, Chaska: Have you found the genome code for apes? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: There are several primates that are in the process of being sequenced for their entire genomes. Gorillas are at the "draft assembly" stage, meaning that the sequencing is pretty much finished but the order of all the sequences on all the chromosomes needs to be finalized. If you'd like to look up the sequencing status of different species, you can look here: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=genomeprj Q: Carlos Pabon Jr. from Palm Beach Lakes High School: How come I'm not deaf when both of my parents are? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Genetic factors account for at least half of all cases of congenital deafness (deafness at birth), and can be classified by the mode of inheritance and the presence or absence of characteristic clinical features that may permit the diagnosis of a specific form of syndromic deafness. To answer your question, it would help to know the cause of deafness in each of your parents. It is possible for deaf parents to have a hearing child. You may want to consider going to see a genetic counselor to help answer your question. Q: Akki, CA: Is it possible to be XY but appear female externally? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: A condition called "Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome" can cause a person with an XY karyotype to appear female. People with this condition have a change in the androgen receptor gene. This means that during development, their bodies ignore the chemical signals that tell the body to develop male organs. Since the default developmental pathway is female, people with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome appear female. Q: Max Crane Palms Middle School: What is gene mapping? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Gene mapping refers to finding the location of a gene in the human genome. In other words, determining the chromosome, the chromosome arm and exactly which spot at which the gene resides. Q: Kathrine Bendtsen: What implications do you foresee that the discovery of the human genome will have on the medical field, pharmacology and even other health related fields such as physical therapy? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: The possibilities are tremendous.As we better understand human genome variation then we can better understand the genetic contribution to health and illness. This will allow the development of better diagnostic tools, consideration of types and frequency of screening tests (i.e., colonoscopy for those at risk for colon cancer at younger ages), improved diagnosis of disease assisting in selection of treatment (i.e., more aggressing disease matched with aggressive treatment), and potential for targeted drug selection based on gene profiles. All of this is considered personalized medicine! This occuring at a rapid pace challenging all care providers to kepp up. But it offers great hope for individuals that will benefit from all these advances. Good question! Q: Maeva from Holy Child: What kinds of jobs will this new information create in the future? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: As the field of genetics continues to evolve, the field continues to grow and become more diverse. The career options will continue to grow as well. We need a diverse group of people to get involved in genetics, such as those interested in biology, computer science, chemistry, ethics, law, policy, art, writing, education, sociology... the list will continue to grow and grow. Q: Alex mazza, Stenen Freeland: Is cow milk genetically modified? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Hello, Spanish River!!!! To be honest, I'm not totally sure. I don't think that milk is genetically modified. Some cows are, though. Q: Kelsey, from Black Mountain, NC: If identical twins was to go for DNA testing for a paternity suit would they be able to tell exactly which twin was the father? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Hello to Mr. Beaver's class i Black Mountain, NC from Mr. Witherlyat NHGRI. A standard paternity test may not be able to distinguish which twin is the father. More sophisticated tests would have to be done in order to establish the paternity. Q: Valerie D. L.A. Palms Middle School: What is Newborn Genetic Screening? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Newborn genetic screening involves obtaining a small amount of blood from a newborn and testing the sample for a set of genetic disorders for which there is early intervention and treatment. The classic example of newborn screening is PKU. When an infant tests positive on their newborn screen for PKU, then they are referred for diagnostic testing. If they are found to have PKU, they can then be given an altered diet to prevent complications such as mental retardation. All states have newborn screening for genetic disorders programs. Some states now screen for 30 diseases. Q: Erin and Marissa Florida: Can two people who look completly different have similar DNA? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: All people share 99.9% of their DNA. All of uniqueness lies in the one one thousandth of our DNA that is different. Q: Sam Bailey, St. Ignatius College Prep: What is the oldest specimen of DNA? What type of organism did it come from? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The oldest, accepted DNA isolated comes from 400,000-year-old plants found in ice in Siberia. (BBC News) Q: Sylvie, Newton MA: If you are born with a disease what percent of your DNA has a mutation? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: Most people with a genetic condition have a gene change that is present in all of their cells. For some conditions, though, only a portion of a person's cells have a gene change. The parts of the body with the change show the condition while the parts of the body without the change do not show the condition. Q: kier cape elizabeth maine: How do you know if you are a carrier for certain genes? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: All of us are carriers for 7 - 10 recessive conditions. You might never know that you are a carrier unless you have a child with a genetic condition like PKU. Carrier genetic testing for common genetic conditions such as cystic fibrosis is offered to couples who are considering pregnancy so that they can learn whether they are both carriers and have an increased chance of having a child with cystic fibrosis. Q: My name is Micheal Jackson Palm beach Lakes: Do we now have the ability to change who we are? Can changing our DNA sequence make us more athletic or smarter? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: No, currently we do not have the ability to alter our DNA either for enhancement purposes or to treat diseases. This technology is quite a ways down the road from where we are now. Even if we could change DNA to improve intelligence or athleticism, these characteristics are still heavily influenced by environment, i.e., how hard someone practices or studies. Q: Dalton Holcomb Las Vegas, Nevada HPMS: How many years will it take to become a certified scientist? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: There are many kinds of science-related jobs which require different amounts of training. It's pretty similar to working in medicine. Some hospital jobs only require a high school diploma, but to be a nurse or a doctor you need more education. If you would like to run your own lab group at a university or in a company you would need a Ph.D., which is similar to needing an M.D. to be a doctor. A Ph.D. is granted after completing graduate school. So after high school, you'd need a college degree (usually four years to get your bachelor's degree) and then go to graduate school (4-6 years to get your Ph.D.). Q: aaron: How has DNA Day affected the rest of the world? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Well, we've had many participants in the chatroom today from places all over the world. One of the first questions we received was from the Netherlands. We hope that the online resources made available today by NHGRI and other organizations participating in the program will be used by people internationally. Q: Alondra, Los Angeles: How exact is genetic testing? Is 100% correct? A: Jean Jenkins, R.N., Ph.D.: Wow, that's a difficult question to answer. It really varies depending on the type of genetic test. For instance, some illnesses are caused by a single known gene change (mutation)that can be tested (i.e., huntington disease). In that situation the individual either has the gene change or not. For others, the gene test may be able to identify certain gene changes that are known to increase someone's lifetime risk (i.e., breast cancer) but our knowledge of all the genes involved may not yet have been identified. In that case, a range of risk may be provided for someone with a positive gene test (i.e., BRCA1)with actual disease risk influenced by other factors (i.e., environmental, behavioral, etc). Plus accuracy and validity of test results is also influenced by the lab doing the testing. Q: Mitchell H., Palms Middle School, Los Angeles: What makes a stem cell different from a skin cell? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: A stem cell retains the ability to develop into different types of cells. The skin cell has already experienced changes, such as certain genes being turned on or off causing certain types of proteins to be expressed, to make it a skin cell. Q: Michaela, JFK Middle School, NY: What causes Hemophilia? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Hemophilia is most commonly caused by a gene mutation on the X chromosome. A woman who is a carrier for hemophilia has the gene mutation on one of her two X chromosomes. Since she has an X chromosome with a normal copy of the gene, she does not have hemophilia. A woman who is a carrier has a 50% chance to pass on the X chromosome that contains the gene mutation for hemophilia. A male who inherits this gene mutation will have hemophilia. A carrier female also has a 50% chance to pass on her X chromosome that is normal to a son who would not have hemophilia. Q: Chioma Aso; LA,CA; Palms Middle School: How much difference in the genetic code can you find in someone's ancestry? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: If you compare genetic sequences that you inherited directly from an ancestor, then the sequences will be the same except for mutations that have occured since that ancestor. In general though, all humans are 99.9% the same at the sequence level. So at maximum difference in the genetic code could be only 0.1% different. Q: Olive Yew, Maine: I made a DNA cake, is that an appropriate way to celebrate DNA day? what year was DNA discovered? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: That is fantastic! We have heard about lots of ideas for DNA Day around food, such as creating a DNA model out of twizzlers and gum drops. DNA was first isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher (he isolated the DNA from pus!). You can read more about it in our education kit at www.genome.gov/edkit (look in the timeline for the 1800's). Q: Carlos Pabon Jr. from Palm Beach Lakes High School: How come my baby cousin looks more like me than his brothers? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Although we inherit are genes from our parents, your cousin is related to you and probably shares some of your genes. Our appearance is related to a variety of factors and it is not unusual for relatives to look very similar. Q: Julia from Newton, MA: As scientists, is it hard to choose between the religious view of creation and the scientific view? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: This is a personal issue that many scientists struggle with. As human beings, many of us have questions about our origins and why we are here. Just like other people, scientists vary in how certain they are about their own personal answers and explanations. I think that what scientists and people of faith have in common is a desire to answer these questions, and by doing so, understand more about ourselves and our world. Q: John Doe, Westview: If all our DNA in each cell is the same then how are there different types of cells? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Not all genes operate the same in different types of cells. In some cells, only certain genes are turned 'on' and producing proteins. For a muscle cell, only those genes needed to create a muscle cell are working. Q: Andrew, Westview High School: Does radiation affect all the genes or just some? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Radiation can potentially affect all DNA. The radiation can change the chemistry of the DNA molecule whether it's part of a gene or in a non-genic region. Q: Matt Chanhassen, MINNESOTA: Are the procedures to study the DNA of dogs quite neccesary, or should the money be going towards other DNA investigations? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The understanding of dog genome will provide valuable insight into many human disorders including cancer and narcolepsy. In my opinion, the money spent on the dog genome is money well spent. Q: shinnea wpb,fl: How many years did you stay in shool to become a scientist? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I spent 4 years in college and 6 years in graduate school in order to get my PhD in molecular genetics. Q: Andrew, Westview High School: What is more common beta or alpha thalassemia A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Beta and alpha thalassemia are inherited forms of anemia in which there is a defect in the synthesis of hemoglobin. The estimated prevalence of both forms of thalassemia is 16% in people from Cyprus; 3 - 14% of people from Thailand; and 3 - 8% of populations from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and China. There are also prevalences in Latin America, Carribean, and in countries bordering the Mediterranean. Q: Suzanne-HFCHS, Victoria MN: How many generations does it take to go from a very dark complexion to a very light complexion? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Skin color is a complex genetic trait that we don't fully understand. Multiple genetic components are expected to contribute to skin color. It really depends on chance and parental contribution. Q: Celicia Clarke:mecps in brooklyn NY: How can I get involved in the study of DNA and the genome? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Right now, enjoy the classes you're taking and use this time to figure out what aspects of genetics and science interest you. You might want to consider looking into summer programs or other opportunities that can help you develop your interests. Q: Cree F westview: Whats the most expensive peice of equipment you use? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Probably my computer. That's because I work in an office and help to manage genetic research. I don't conduct research myself anymore. However, I do help to make the decisions about who gets money. The most expensive pieces of equipment in the research that is funded are sequencing machines. They can cost a half a million dollars each. Q: evan, MA: Are suicidal feelings genetic? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: First of all, suicidal feelings are serious and if you are thinking about hurting yourself or if someone you know is feeling this way, it's really important for you to tell someone like a parent or school counselor. We do know that there can be a genetic component to psychiatric conditions like depression, which can cause a person to have suicidal feelings. These kind of conditions can cluster in families and in most cases are due to both genetic and enviromental factors. Q: camille from palms middle school: what can you tell me about prenatal testing? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: I can tell you that there are several types of prenatal testing that are available to couples. There is prenatal screening for spina bifida and Down syndrome, for example. This type of prenatal testing involves analysis of a blood sample from a pregnant woman. If a woman screens positive for one of these conditions, she is offered further diagnostic testing which may involve a high resolution ultrasound or amniocentesis (testing of the fluid from around the developing baby. Prenatal testing is optional as different couples may have different feelings about whether to have or not to have prenatal testing. Q: : Could the advances in genetics ever help cure or treat a disease like MS? A: Julie Sapp, Sc.M.: One of the goals of the Human Genome Project and other genetic research is to better understand how our genes contribute to health. We hope that learning more about our genes can lead to a better understanding of conditions like MS and that this kind of research could contribute to cures for this and other conditions. Q: Olivia W. Westview: Is there a disorder where someone is born with the chromosomes "YY"? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, there is a chromosomal disorder where a male is born with an extra Y chromosome - 47,XYY. Q: Alex T. Palms Middle School: What is karyotyping? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Karyotyping is a way to visualize chromosomes. The chromosomes are arranged and displayed in pairs, ordered by size and position of centromere for chromosomes of the same size and then stained. Q: Taylor Voges Las Vegas ,NV: Has there ever been a question that it was so hard that you could not answer it? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: I don't think we've ever avoided answering hard questions, the problem is that we've received so many questions, we have to pick the ones we can answer in the time alotted. We try to choose a representative group of questions to answer throughout the day. Please be sure to check back and read the transcript at the end of the day to see if we were able to answer your question. Q: Tiffany, Brown Middle School: How closely are people and purple sea urchins related and how would people find out? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The genome of a male California purple sea urchin was sequenced, and it contained over 814 million letters, spelling out 23,300 genes. The sea urchin had most of the same gene families found in man, the Deuterostome toolkit used to create animals in this superphylum. However, the size of gene families was often larger in humans, reflecting in part two whole genome duplication events during vertebrate evolution, after the separation of the sea urchin and human evolutionary lines. To read more, please visit or website at http://www.genome.gov/19016944. Q: ruby dutton ths: can dna smell? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: No. DNA is a chemical molecule. However, there are DNA sequences (genes) that are associated with our ability to smell. Q: Taylor Wilson HPMS: Do dogs see in black and white? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, that's correct. I believe dogs only have rods in the backs of their eyes (as compared to rods and cones like humans do), and therefore cannot see color. Q: Jenny Hyde Park Middle School: Do males have hemophilia more often than females? If so, why? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes, males do have hemophilia more often than females. Hemophilia is usually an X-linked inherited condition. For hemophila A, 1 in 10,000 males is born with this condition. For hemophila B, 1 in 34,500 males is born with this condition. Hemophilia A and B are inherited in an X-linked recessive manner. In X-linked inheritance a woman who is a carrier has a gene mutation for hemophilia on one of her two X chromosomes. Since she has a normally functioning X chromosome, she will not have hemophilia. A male who inherits the gene for hemophilia from his mother will have the disorder since he only has one X chromosome. Q: Jahkida Palm Beach Lakes: What is uracil? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Uracil ione of the four nitrogen bases in RNA. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Uracil replaces thymine, which is the fourth base in DNA. Like thymine, uracil always pairs with adenine Q: Alex mazza, Stenen Freeland: What was the first genetically modified organism? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer started simply in 1973 by genetically modifying bacteria.
Q: the mazzanator and the stevens: What organism looks like it will be sequenced next? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Just some of the organisms being sequenced and compared to the human genome to illucidate health and disease are the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus); domestic cat (Felis catus); guinea pig (Cavia porcellus); African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana); tree shrew (Tupaia species); rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus); and a bat species that will be determined based on the availability of a high-quality DNA sample. Q: lanay Ny: what is your job A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: I am the Community Outreach Analyst here at the NHGRI. I work on education programs like DNA Day and also work to engage different groups around topics related to genetics. I definitely enjoy my job, it's a lot of fun! Q: Jes Maryland: If two of you're parents have genetic disorders is there a possibility that one of their children may be the carrier? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Yes it is possible. If you have a specific concern you could get in touch with the Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center, funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute and the Office of Rare Diseases, National Institutes of Health. Q: Jahkida Palm Beach Lakes High: Can you get DNA from Dinosaurs bones? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Hello, Palm Beach Lakes!!! I amnot sure if DNA has actually been isolated fromdinosaur bones. Ancient DNA is very hard to extract from old samples, because it can degrade over time and be contaminated by DNA fomr other organisms. Q: Jonathan Medina.San Fransisco,CA: What gives DNA it's form? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: The chemical bonds along the backbones of the double hilex molecule and the bonds between the nucleotides/bases that make up the rungs of the double helix 'ladder'. Q: Katherine Newton, MA: What are the best parts of being a scientist? What are the worst? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: My favorite part of being a scientist is the intellectual challenge of figuring out how to ask a question in the lab, and being the first to know the answer. One hard part of being a scientist is that your ideas of how to tackle problems often don't work right away, so you need to be persistent to be successful. Q: maddie: How many genes are in a dog? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: Dogs have 39 chromosome pairs and about 20,000 genes. Q: jordana kristel cold spring harbor: what made the scientist start the human genome process? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: The Human Genome Project was a started as an effort to undertake a very large and expensive research project in such a way that saved money and took advantage of the expertise of scientists around the world. The main goal was to determine the sequence of all the chemicals (nucleotides) in the human genome thereby creating a resource that all biologists can use to further their research. Q: Becky & Kaylagh, MN: How many genes does rice have? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The genome is more than 400 megabases in size with an estimated 50,000 genes. Q: Kellan Turcy, St Ignacious Prep: Can people with XXY or XXXY chromosomes live healthy lives of normal length? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Life expectancy for men who have XXY is expected to be normal. Men with XXXY (Barr-Shaver-Carr syndrome)resemble men who have XXY. Q: E.K.....West Chester, PA: To what degree is personality controlled by genetics? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: The short answer is that we don't know. Like many traits, it's hard to tell how much personality is determined by environment and how much is determined by genetics. Behavioral genetics is a rapidly expanding field with scientists asking questions like yours. Q: Brittany, Bradford Ohio: What are the differences between a chimp's DNA and a human's DNA? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: On average the human genome and rat genomes are different at approximately 1% of the bases in their genomes. Q: Sadaf A. Westview: Who discovered that girls are XX and boys are XY? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: The XY sex determination system was first described independently by Nettie Stevens and Edmund Beecher Wilson in 1905. Q: Thomas: How many people in the United States have genetic disorders? How many are carriers of genetic disorders? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Each of us carries 6 - 8 recessive gene mutations that when paired with a similar gene mutation in a partner, can cause a genetic disorder. We do not know the number of people in the U.S. who have genetic disorders as many are undiagnosed. Q: Ridgewood HS, OH: Can you predict how far away geneticists are from knowing the function of every gene in the human genome? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Honestly, no one can predict how far we are from knowing the function of every gene in the human genome. Although the human genome sequence is known, scientists are still working hard just to identify all the genes, as well as determine what each gene does. Work on related genes in other organisms (like bacteria, yeast, fruit flies, mice, chimps and many more) has accelerated our understanding of what human genes do. Q: Isabelle Newton, Ma: Is it possible to to recieve a gene that absolutely no one in your family has? For example if no your family has ever had red hair and green eyes, is there any way that you could get that combination? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: No, you can't receive a gene that your family doesn't have. However, you can inherit a trait that isn't apparent in your family. If the gene variant for green eyes are recessive and also carried by both your parents (although they don't have green eyes), you could end up with green eyes. Q: Bobby: On average, What gender lives longer? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Life expectancy for U.S. residents increased to 77.6 years according to the 2003 U.S. census. Females live an average 5.4 years longer than males. Q: Maddy: HFCHS, Victoria, Minnesota: Does a baby have less DNA than a mature adult? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Yes, because adults have more cells. Although, the genetic information in babies and adults are the same. Q: Liz Komarek Holy Family Catholic High School: We are learning about RNA strands. What part of our body do they help with? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are various types of RNA and they are found inside our cells. Mostly, we associate RNA with protein production. DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA. The messenger RNA is then translated into proteins. Proteins are the "work horses" of the cell. Without the proteins, you would not be able to function. Without RNA, you could not make proteins. Scientists are learning more and more about the different types of RNA that exist and how RNA helps to regulate protein expression. Q: shinnea: Do you guys ever have fun? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: We have lots of fun! Who wouldn't have fun working with DNA! Q: Brian from HFCHS Minnesota!: Can DNA tell people how long they will live? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Longevity is a very complicated trait. We know about some genes that contribute to living longer and we will undoubtedly figure out more genes that do. However, we don't know enough at this point to really predict things. In addition, environment (what you eat, how much you exercise) plays a big role in longevity. Q: Mike Hunt: How many different amino acid varieties are there? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There a total of 20 amino acids. Q: Mandy, TN: What types of education must you complete to be certified in your field?? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: This depends entirely on what you would like to do. If you want to be in charge of your own lab, it's necessary to have a Ph.D. Other research specialties might require an M.D. or J.D. However for other jobs, master's or bachelor's level degrees might be appropriate. I encourage you to look into the field you're interested in to determine what education level is necessary to get. Q: HFCHS: What if a person has only 45 chromosomes, will they develop any certain dieseases? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: It depends on what chromosome is missing. When a woman is missing one of her two X chromosomes, this is a genetic condition called Turner syndrome. She will have short stature, the possibly of having some learning issues and infertility. Q: Erin, Madison: What is your favorite science joke? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: What did one helix say to the other?? "hey, why are you so wound up??" Q: Ashish Ingle, SMV Centre for Biotechnolgy, Nagpur India: What evolutionary changes do you predict on human genome? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Very interesting question. One could imagine that humans will adapt to their current environment which has certainly changed a lot. Think about all the things that we have now that weren't around before: adequate food supply, toxins in the environment, more medicines to treat disease. These things could lead to changes in who reproduces, a necessity for evolution. Q: andrea Mansourian, Anna Worch: What did you major in in college and what college did you attend? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: I went to a small liberal arts college called Haverford College and majored in biology. But everyone in this room has a different background. Some of us went to large undergraduate institutions for a microbiology degree, some majored in english, others even majored in medical photography. We've all taken very different paths to end up in this chatroom today! Q: Carlos Fernando Castaneda, BIMAC Research Group. Universidad del Cauca. Colombia: Is there an Multiple Sclerosus gene? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: The most comprehensive study to date on multiple sclerosis by researchers at Duke University in 2005 pinpointed a cluster of genes on chromosome number 6 that play a major role in causing multiple sclerosis. An earlier study in 2003 also found a gene that appears to be a risk factor for multiple sclerosis, and may cause the disease to progress more rapidly than normal (gene known as CD24). Q: Luke, Hyde Park: Can more then one mutation happen at once? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Sure. Multiple mutations could happen at the same time but in different places of the genome. Or multiple mutations could happen in the same place in the genome, but at different times. Q: Scott Colorado: What is the relationship between junk DNA and evolution? A: Faith Pangilinan, Ph.D.: Traditionally, we've thought of protein-coding genes as being the "important" part of the genome that have been conserved throughout evolution as seen by sequence similarity between species. In contrast, the large intervening sequences were thought to be "junk DNA" because they're not conserved (lack of sequence similarity) between species. However, more recently it's thought that these genomic regions may have elements with previously unrecognized function. Q: Stephanie Narine, palm beach lakes: What makes the DNA pull apart from the strawberry juice when extracting DNA from strawberries? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are many steps in isolating DNA. The DNA in a strawberry is located within the strawberry cells. In order to extract the DNA from the cells, we use a detergent to disrupt the cell membranes and release the DNA. We then use salt to stabilize the DNA and alcohol to preciptate it so that we can see it. Q: evan, MA: If two animals "mix," like a liger, does the DNA change a lot? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: A liger is a hybrid (combination) of a tiger and a lion. Half the DNA of a liger is like a tiger and half is like a lion. So,the DNA is the same as those two animals, but is paired up in a very unusual way. Q: Dustin HAll, Las Vegas, Nevada, HPMS: Do tomatoes have DNA? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes! Everything that is living has DNA. Q: Taelor S. Westview: Can animals have some of the same genetic disorders that humans do? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Yes, absolutely. For example, dogs have some of the same cancers as humans. In addition, scientists have purposefully created models (such as in mice) of human genetic diseases. Q: Abby and Max, TN: What is the most common disease due to gene mutations? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: One of the most common genetic disorders is Down syndrome, caused by the presence of an extra number 21 chromosome (trisomy 21). Another common genetic disease is cystic fibrosis, an autosomal recessive condition that occurs in 1 in 2500 individuals. Five percent of the U.S. population carries a gene for cystic fibrosis. Q: MM from New York: Why do they use mice in experiments -- do they have DNA like humans? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, mice have many genes that function similarly to genes in humans. So if we study them in mice, and learn about how they function, we can learn similar lessons for humans. There are many other model organisms that are used in research such as the rat, dog, zebrafish, or chicken! Q: Jacob Gray; Los Angeles, California, USA: What has been the highlight of your career? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: As part of my job here at NHGRI, I particpated in the organization and management of the Human Genome Project. Some little highlights are a trip to China and a press conference at the White House. Q: shinnea wpb,fl: Why wasn't Rosalind Franklin acknowleged for what she did? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: There are probably a number of reasons why more people do not know about Dr. Franklin's contributions. Also, Dr. Franklin died before the Nobel Prize for the double helix was rewarded and the Nobel Prize is not awarded to non-living persons. Q: kendrick medearis ,delray beach florida: how close is human DNA to that of a chimp? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Hey Spanish River! Human and chimps are 99% identical at the DNA sequence level. Q: : How many genes are there in the human genome? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are between 20 - 30,000 genes in the human genome. This finding is one of the big surprises that came out of the mapping of the human genome. For many years, people thought that humans had 100,000 or more. Q: Will F Paja, Palms Middle School: If you lose an arm, does your DNA change? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: No, if you were to lose a limb, this would not alter your DNA. Q: Spencer R: Being a professional scientist, your job obviously takes a lot of effort, but does it take a lot of time? is it aggrevating at times? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Yes, it does. And it is aggravating at times. As with any job, sometimes things are difficult. Sometimes, I have to do things I don't want to do. But I like my job because it is interesting and challenging, and I feel like I can contribute, at least in a small way, to the betterment of society. Q: A.K, from Thomas Jefferson High School: Are there any summer internships or other summer learning programs which you could recommend? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: Yes, the NIH offers summer internships for high school and college students. Information can be found at http://www.training.nih.gov/. The application deadline has passed for this year, but check it out next fall if you are interested. Q: Bianca Hyde Park Middle School: Do vegetables have complicated DNA? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Chemically they have the same DNA as we do. Obviously, though the genetic sequence is very different. Some vegetables are more complicated because they have more chromosomes or genes. Some vegetables have less, though. Q: justine heritage, St. Paul's School for Girls: What are some examples of x-linked disorders besides color-blindness? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Some examples of X-linked disorders include: hemophila, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Fragile X syndrome, X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Q: L: What is the latest gene discovery? A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: This may not be the latest, but it is very recent. Scientists have discovered the gene variant in dogs that controls size. In the future, this may help us understand what contributes to size in humans. Q: : If tongue rolling is dominant, why can't neither of my parents roll my tongue? (I'm not adopted). A: Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: Honestly, I'm not sure. Maybe there are environmental factors that have influenced their (in)ability to role thier tongues. Q: Sophie L. Westview: Who discovered that you could use a Punnet square to predict your traits from your mom and your dad? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: The concept of the Punnett square was developed by Reginald Punnett. Q: laura tatro: should i be a scientist when im older, will i like it? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: If you already like science and are inquisitive this could easily be the life for you. Everyone in the room at this point loves being a scientist. It is an ever-changing job and seldom ever gets boring. We encourage you to give it some thought! Q: Michaela - NY: Are characteristics such as speed, artistic ability, or musical talent inherited? If they are, can they be affected by your environment? A: Sarah Harding, M.P.H.: There might be genetic components to characteristics like the ones you're asking about, but for now research hasn't found anything conclusive that I know of. The environment plays a huge role in what you are asking about, like hard work and dedication to developing a talent. Q: Chris G. New Jersey: About how many years of schooling do you have to go through to work your way up to where you guys are now in your careers? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Here at the Genome Institute people have a lot of different levels of degrees from bachelors degrees in science and technical fields through PhD's and MD's. Q: Jimmy Boe, Alabama: Is DNA Polymerase an actual enzyme, or is it made up? A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: DNA Polymerase is an enzyme involved in the replication of DNA. Q: Monica Ide Palms Middle School: What reasons are there to take genetic testing? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: There are many reasons for a person to consider having genetic testing. Some of the reasons are carrier testing, prenatal diagnosis, genetic testing to make a diagnosis, genetic testing to see if a person is predisposed to develop a genetic condition. Choosing to have genetic testing, in many instances, is a highly personal one. People often seek genetic counseling to help them make a decision to have a genetic test. Q: Madison, Chicago: Where do babies come from? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Babies come from mommies and daddies. Q: Jessica B, Cold Spring Harbor: Do you think that with more research, scientists will find a cure for cancer, alzheimers, and other fatal diseases in teh near future? A: Dale Lea, R.N., M.P.H., C.G.C., F.A.A.N.: Research emerging from human genome discoveries is leading to more targeted, gene-based treatments for cancers such as breast cancer. Such treatments as these are allowing people to live longer and more productive lives. Q: Lilly Astrow, Palms Middle School, Los Angeles: Whats your favorite part of your job A: Carla Easter, Ph.D.: I really enjoy working with students and being able to provide them with information on genomics and the newest innovations in the field. I also enjoy the opportunity to travel around the country and meet different people.
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