Domestic Violence

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Relevant Websites
Statistics
In the Literature
     Reports
     Books
     Journal Articles

Each year, an estimated 3 to 10 million children witness assaults against a parent by an intimate partner.(Straus, 1992) Domestic violence does not discriminate across lines of race, culture, nationality or gender. It occurs at the same rate in both homosexual and heterosexual relationships (Mills et al., 2000). The experience of family violence can be among the most disturbing for children because both victims and aggressors are the adults who care for them and who are most closely attached to them. For many of these children, violence interrupts their experience of consistent safety and care, and creates an environment of uncertainty and helplessness.

Children who are exposed to domestic violence, especially repeated incidents of violence, are at risk for many difficulties, both immediately and in the future. These include problems with sleeping, eating and other basic bodily functions; depression, aggressiveness, anxiety and other problems in regulating emotions; difficulties with family and peer relationships; and problems with attention, concentration and school performance.

Research also shows that parents who are violent with one another are at a higher risk for physically abusing their children.(Straus, 1992) An alarming fact is that domestic violence has been found to be the single most common precursor to child death in the United States. (Mills et al., 2000) Children exposed to domestic violence are also at risk to repeat their experience in the next generation, either as victims or perpetrators of violence in their own intimate relationships. Despite these serious risks, a small percentage of children exposed to family violence are not as severely affected later on in life. It is important to remember that individual children’s responses are dependent on many factors within the child, the family and the environment. (Hughes, Graham-Bermann, & Gruber, 2001)

In order to minimize the risk of long-term damage, child witnesses to domestic violence need the safety and security of their environment to be restored. Children exposed to domestic violence also need support from the adults around them, most importantly their own parents or other primary caregivers.

Interventions that help children are usually those that help parents to increase their own safety and to increase the resources available to provide safety for their children. Child abuse, youth violence and domestic violence are inextricably interwoven. The presence of domestic violence in a child’s life not only hurts the child, it has reaching effects on all of society. Community based interventions may be the best hope for families in our society struggling with violence in their homes. Early education on the subject can help prevent the cycle of domestic violence from continuing.

Health care workers, law enforcement officers, educators, domestic abuse and child welfare organization workers all play overlapping roles in the prevention and intervention of cases of harmful domestic violence. (Jaffe, Baker, & Cunningham, 2004) If you know a child that has been exposed to domestic violence or if you are living with domestic violence, there is help available. People from nearly all parts of the country have access to domestic violence crisis hotlines, shelters and counseling. Please see below for links to organizations committed to preventing domestic violence.

References:

Hughes, H. M., Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Gruber, G. (2001). Resilience in children exposed to domestic violence. In S. A. Graham-Bermann & J. L. Edleson (Eds.), Domestic violence in the lives of children: The future of research, intervention, and social policy (pp. 67-90). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Jaffe, P. G., Baker, L. L., & Cunningham, A. J. (2004). Protecting children from domestic violence: strategies for community intervention. New York: Guilford Press.

Mills, L. G., Friend, C., Conroy, K., Fleck-Henderson, A., Krug, S., Magen, R. H., et al. (2000). Child protection and domestic violence: Training, practice and policy issues. Children and Youth Services Review, 22(5), 315-332.

Straus, M. (1992). Children as witnesses to marital violence: a risk factor. Columbus, OH: Ross Laboratories.

Relevant Websites

Statistics

Children who witness violence at home display emotional and behavioral disturbances as diverse as withdrawal, low self-esteem, nightmares, and aggression against peers, family members and property. (Peled, E., Jaffe, P.G. & Edleson, J.L. (Eds.) Ending the Cycle of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995.)
Over 3 million children are at risk of exposure to parental violence each year. (Carlson, B.E. "Children's Observations of Interparental Violence" in Edwards, A.R. (Ed.). Battered Women and Their Families. New York: Springer. pp. 147-167. 1984).
In a national survey of over 6,000 American families, 50% of the men who frequently assaulted their wives also frequently abused their children. (Straus, M.A. & Gelles, R.J. (eds.). Physical violence in American families. New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers. 1990.)
In 1995, the FBI reported that 27% of all violence occurs in a family setting. (National Incident-Based Reporting System. The Structure of Family Violence: An Analysis of Selected Incidents, 1996 pdf.
Straus and Gelles (1988) have estimated that over 29 million children commit an act of violence against a sibling each year. (Straus, M. & Gelles, R. How violent are American families: estimates from the National Family Violence Resurvey and other studies. In: Hotaling G. et al., (Eds). Family Abuse and Its Consequences: New Directions in Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1988.)
Studies show that child abuse occurs in 30-60% of family violence cases that involve families with children. (Edleson, J.L. The overlap between child maltreatment and woman battering. Violence Against Women. 5 (2): 134-154, 1999 Feb.)

In the Literature

Reports

Early childhood, domestic violence, and poverty. Paper Series. School of Social Work , University of Iowa . Susan Schechter and Jane Knitzer, eds. pdf

Series introduction, by Susan Schechter and Jane Knitzer. pdf
Series Paper #1: Helping young children affected by domestic violence: the role of pediatric health settings, by Betsy McAlister Groves and Ken Fox. pdf
Series Paper #2: Young children living with domestic violence: the role of early childhood programs, by Elena Cohen and Jane Knitzer. pdf
Series Paper #3: Domestic violence and family support programs: creating opportunities to help young children and their families, by Nilofer Ahsan. pdf
Series Paper #4: Police in the lives of young children exposed to domestic violence, by Miriam Berkman and Dean Esserman. pdf
Series Paper #5: Working with young children and their families: recommendations for domestic violence agencies and batterer intervention programs, by Abigail Gewirtz and Resma Menakem. pdf
Series Paper #6: Young children’s exposure to adult domestic violence: toward a developmental risk and resilience framework for research and intervention, by Abigail Gewirtz and Jeffrey L. Edleson. pdf

Children exposed to intimate partner violence. National Resource Center on Domestic Violence. March 2002. pdf

Costs of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the United States. March 2003

Helping Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: Law Enforcement and Community Partnerships. 2000. pdf

Identifying and responding to domestic violence: recommendations for child and adolescent health. Family Violence Prevention Fund, September 2002. pdf

The Military Response to Victims of Domestic Violence: Tools for Civilian Advocates. Judith Beals, The Battered Women’s Justice Project. June 2003. pdf

Preventing Family Violence: Community Engagement Makes the Difference. Family Violence Prevention Fund, September 2002. pdf

Workshop on Children Exposed to Violence: Current Status, Gaps and Research. 2002 pdf

For more resources, see:

Domestic Violence in the Context of Children Exposed to Violence: a Resource Guide. NCCEV, August 2003. Revised June 2004.

Books

The batterer as parent: addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics. Lundy Bancroft, Jay G. Silverman. Thousand Oaks , Calif. : Sage Publications, c2002.

Child custody and domestic violence: a call for safety and accountability. Peter Jaffe, Nancy Lemon, Samantha Poisson. London : Sage Publications, 2002

Childhood experiences of domestic violence. Caroline McGee. London ; Philadelphia : Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2000.

Children exposed to domestic violence: current issues in research, intervention, prevention, and policy development. Robert A. Geffner, Peter G. Jaffe, Marlies Sudermann, eds. London : Haworth Maltreatment & Trauma Press, 2000.

Children exposed to domestic violence handbooks. London Family Court Clinic.

Children exposed to domestic violence: an early childhood educator’s handbook to increase understanding and improve community responses (2002) L. L. Baker, P.G. Jaffe, L. M. Ashbourne & J. Carter. pdf
Children exposed to domestic violence: a teacher’s handbook to increase understanding and improve community responses (2002) L. L. Baker, P.G. Jaffe, L. M. Ashbourne & J. Carter. pdf
Children exposed to domestic violence: a handbook for youth justice workers to increase understanding and improve community responses (in press – check url for more info) L. L. Baker, P.G. Jaffe.
Children exposed to domestic violence: a handbook for police trainers to increase understanding and improve community responses (2002) L. L. Baker, P.G. Jaffe, S. J. Berkowitz & M. Berkman. pdf

Children who see too much: lessons from the Child Witness to Violence project. Betsy McAlister Groves. Boston : Beacon Press, 2002.

Children's perspectives on domestic violence. Audrey Mullender. London : Sage Publications, 2002.

Domestic violence in the lives of children: the future of research, intervention, and social policy. Sandra A. Graham-Bermann and Jeffrey L. Edleson, eds. Washington , D.C. : American Psychological Association, 2001.

From child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: Trauma, revictimization, and intervention. Koenig, Linda J. (Ed); Doll, Lynda S. (Ed); O'Leary, Ann (Ed); Pequegnat, Willo (Ed). Washington , DC , US : American Psychological Association. (2004). xv, 346pp.

Health consequences of abuse in the family: A clinical guide for evidence-based practice. Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen A. (Ed). Washington , DC , US : American Psychological Association. (2004). xiii, 289pp.

Protecting Children from Domestic Violence: Strategies from Domestic Violence: strategies for community intervention. Peter G. Jaffe, Linda L. Baker, and Alison J. Cunningham. New York : Guilford Press, 2004

Violence in the home: multidisciplinary perspectives. Karel Kurst-Swanger, Jacqueline L. Petcosky. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2003.

Journal Articles

Barabash, Kenneth John. Developmental filial therapy: Process-outcome research on strengthening child-parent relationships through play in a setting for victims of domestic violence. [Dissertation Abstract] Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences & Engineering. Vol 64(7-B), 2004, 3513, US: Univ Microfilms International.

Holland , Patrick; Gorey, Kevin M. Historical, Developmental, and Behavioral Factors Associated with Foster Care Challenges. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal. Vol 21(2) Apr 2004 , 117-135.

Zeanah, Charles H; Fox, Nathan A. Temperament and Attachment Disorders. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. Vol 33(1) Feb 2004 , 32-41.

Thomas, Lisa A; De Bellis, Michael D. Pituitary volumes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Biological Psychiatry. Vol 55(7) Apr 2004 , 752-758.

Rogosch, Fred A; Cicchetti, Dante. Child Maltreatment and Emergent Personality Organization: Perspectives From the Five-Factor Model. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Vol 32(2) Apr 2004 , 123-145.

Gagne, Marie-Helene; Bouchard, Camil. Family Dynamics Associated With the Use of Psychologically Violent Parental Practices. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Family Violence. Vol 19(2) Apr 2004 , 117-130.

Guterman, Neil B. Advancing prevention research on child abuse, youth violence, and domestic violence: Emerging strategies and issues. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Vol 19(3) Mar 2004 , 299-321.

Daro, Deborah; Edleson, Jeffrey L; Pinderhughes, Howard. Finding common ground in the study of child maltreatment, youth violence, and adult domestic violence. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Vol 19(3) Mar 2004 , 282-298.

Guille, Lara. Men who batter and their children: An integrated review. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Aggression & Violent Behavior. Vol 9(2) Mar-Apr 2004, 129-163.

Ryan , Virginia . Adapting Non-directive Play Therapy for Children with Attachment Disorders. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Clinical Child Psychology & Psychiatry. Vol 9(1) Jan 2004 , 75-87.

Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Cicchetti, Dante. The impact of child maltreatment on expressive syntax at 60 months. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Developmental Science. Vol 7(1) Feb 2004 , 88-102.

Jaffee, Sara R; Caspi, Avshalom; Moffitt, Terrie E; Taylor, Alan. Physical Maltreatment Victim to Antisocial Child: Evidence of an Environmentally Mediated Process. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol 113(1) Feb 2004 , 44-55.

Leifer, Myra ; Kilbane, Teresa; Kalick, Sarah. Vulnerability or resilience to intergenerational sexual abuse: The role of maternal factors. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Child Maltreatment. Vol 9(1) Feb 2004 , 78-91.

Sternberg, Kathleen J; Knutson, John F; Lamb, Michael E; Baradaran, Laila P; Nolan, Catherine M; Flanzer, Sally. The Child Maltreatment Log: A computer-based program for describing research samples. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Child Maltreatment. Vol 9(1) Feb 2004 , 30-48.

Koenig, Amy L; Cicchetti, Dante; Rogosch, Fred A. Moral development: The association between maltreatment and young children's prosocial behaviors and moral transgressions. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Social Development. Vol 13(1) 2004, 97-106.

Dombrowski, Stefan C; LeMasney, John W; Ahia, C. Emmanuel; Dickson, Shannon A. Protecting Children From Online Sexual Predators: Technological, Psychoeducational, and Legal Considerations. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Professional Psychology - Research & Practice. Vol 35(1) Feb 2004 , 65-73.

Bal, Sarah; De Bourdeaudhuij, Ilse; Crombez, Geert; Van Oost, Paulette. Differences in trauma symptoms and family functioning in intra- and extra familial sexually abused adolescents. [Peer Reviewed Journal] Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Vol 19(1) Jan 2004 , 108-123.

Little, Liza. Victimization of children with disabilities. [Chapter] Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen A. (Ed). (2004). Health consequences of abuse in the family: A clinical guide for evidence-based practice. Application and practice in health psychology. (pp. 95-108). Washington , DC , US : American Psychological Association. xiii, 289pp.

Edwards, Valerie J; Anda, Robert F; Felitti, Vincent J; Dube, Shanta R. Adverse childhood experiences and health-related quality of life as an adult. [Chapter] Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen A. (Ed). (2004). Health consequences of abuse in the family: A clinical guide for evidence-based practice. Application and practice in health psychology. (pp. 81-94). Washington , DC , US : American Psychological Association. xiii, 289pp.

Pennebacker, James W; Stone, Lori D. Translating traumatic experiences into language: Implications for child abuse and long-term health. [Chapter] Koenig, Linda J. (Ed); Doll, Lynda S. (Ed); et al. (2004). From child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: Trauma, revictimization, and intervention. (pp. 201-216). Washington , DC , US : American Psychological Association. xv, 346pp.