U.S. Higher Education Degree Awards

The number of degrees awarded by U.S. academic institutions has been increasing over the past two decades both in S&E and non-S&E fields. For information on the labor market conditions for recent S&E graduates, see "Labor Market Conditions for Recent S&E Graduates" in chapter 3 (Science and Engineering Labor Force) and "Trends in Academic Employment of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers" in chapter 5 (Academic Research and Development).

S&E Associate’s Degrees

Community colleges are often an important and relatively inexpensive gateway for students entering higher education. Associate’s degrees, largely offered by 2-year programs at community colleges, are the terminal degree for some people, but others continue their education at 4-year colleges or universities and subsequently earn higher degrees.[10] Associate’s degrees in S&E or engineering technology accounted for about 12% of all associate’s degrees in 2005.

S&E associate’s degrees from all types of academic institutions rose from 26,500 in 1985 to 45,700 in 2005. The increase in the late 1990s and the early 2000s is mainly attributable to computer sciences, which represented 61% of all S&E associate’s degrees by 2005. In contrast, the number of associate’s degrees awarded in engineering mainly decreased. Degrees earned in engineering technology (not included in S&E degree totals because of their practice-focused nature) declined from 53,700 in 1985 to 28,800 in 2005 (appendix table 2-25Excel.).

Women earned 40% of S&E associate’s degrees in 2005, down from 45% in 1985 and less than their percentage of S&E bachelor’s degrees (50%). As is the case with men, the largest number of S&E associate’s degrees earned by women are in computer sciences (appendix table 2-25Excel.).

Trends in the number of associate’s degrees earned by students’ race/ethnicity are shown in appendix table 2-26Excel..[11] Students from underrepresented groups earn a considerably higher proportion of associate’s degrees than they do of bachelor’s or more advanced degrees (figure 2-13figure.). In 2005, they earned more than one-third of all associate’s degrees in social and behavioral sciences and almost one-quarter of all associate’s degrees in mathematics and computer sciences. The percentage of computer sciences associate’s degrees earned by these students almost doubled since 1985.

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S&E Bachelor’s Degrees

The baccalaureate is the most prevalent degree in S&E, accounting for 70% of all S&E degrees awarded. S&E bachelor’s degrees consistently accounted for roughly one-third of all bachelor’s degrees for the past two decades. Except for a brief downturn in the late 1980s, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees has risen steadily from 332,300 in 1985 to 466,000 in 2005 (appendix table 2-27Excel.).

Trends in the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees vary widely among fields (figure 2-14figure.). The number of bachelor’s degrees earned in engineering, which peaked in 1985, dropped through most of the 1990s before increasing again through 2005. In computer sciences, the number of bachelor’s degrees increased sharply from 1998 to 2004 but fell in 2005. Except for slight dips in the late 1980s and from 1999 to 2002, bachelor’s degrees in biological/agricultural sciences have been increasing, reaching a new peak in 2005. The number of social and behavioral sciences degrees awarded rose in the late 1980s and again in the 2000s, reaching a new peak in 2005 (appendix table 2-27Excel.).

S&E Bachelor’s Degrees by Sex

Women outnumbered men in undergraduate education since 1982 and earned 58% of all bachelor’s degrees in 2005; they earned about half of all S&E bachelor’s degrees since 2000. Within S&E, men and women tend to study different fields. Men earned a majority of bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering, computer sciences, and physics (80%, 78%, and 79%, respectively). Women earned more than half of bachelor’s degrees in psychology (78%), agricultural sciences (51%), biological sciences (62%), chemistry (52%), and social sciences (54%) (appendix table 2-27Excel.). The share of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women increased in almost all major S&E fields during the past two decades. One notable exception, however, is computer sciences. From 1985 through 2005, the proportion of computer sciences bachelor’s degrees awarded to women dropped from 37% to 22% (figure 2-15figure.). Among fields with notable increases in the proportion of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women are earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (from 25% to 42%); agricultural sciences (from 35% to 51%); and chemistry (from 36% to 52%).

The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to women as well as the total number of bachelor’s degrees in all fields rose from 1985 through 2005, with a brief drop in numbers of engineering and natural sciences degrees in the late 1980s and early 1990s and another decline in 2005. In contrast, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to men as well as the total number of bachelor’s degrees in all fields reached a plateau in the 1990s but increased from 2002 through 2005. The flat numbers of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to men in the 1990s masked several divergent trends. The number of engineering, physical sciences, and social and behavioral sciences degrees awarded to men dropped in the 1990s, while the number of bachelor’s degrees in agricultural and biological sciences generally increased in the 1990s.[12]

S&E Bachelor’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

The racial/ethnic composition of those earning S&E bachelor’s degrees changed over the past two decades, reflecting both population change and increasing college attendance by members of minority groups.[13] Between 1985 and 2005, the proportion of S&E degrees awarded to white students declined from 82% to 65%. The proportion awarded to Asians/Pacific Islanders increased from 4% to 9%, to black students from 5% to 8%, to Hispanic students from 4% to 8%, and to American Indian/Alaska Native students from 0.4% to 0.7% (figure 2-16figure.). The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees earned by white students decreased in the 1990s as their numbers in the college-age population dropped, but rose again through 2005. The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees earned by students of unknown race/ethnicity also increased. See sidebar "Increase in Student Nonreporting of Race/Ethnicity."

Despite considerable progress for underrepresented minority groups between 1985 and 2005 in earning bachelor’s degrees in any field, the gap in educational attainment between young minorities and whites continues to be wide. The percentage of blacks ages 25–29 with a bachelor’s or higher degree rose from 12% in 1985 to 18% in 2005, whereas the percentage of Hispanics ages 25–29 with a bachelor’s or higher degree was 11% in 1985 and 2005 (NCES 2006). For whites ages 25–29, this percentage rose from 24% in 1985 to 34% in 2005. Differences in completion of bachelor’s degrees in S&E by race/ethnicity reflect differences in high school completion rates, college enrollment rates, and college persistence and attainment rates. In general, blacks and Hispanics are less likely than whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders to graduate from high school, to enroll in college, and to graduate from college (see "Transition to Higher Education" in chapter 1 for information on immediate post-high school college enrollment rates). Among those who do enroll in or graduate from college, however, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives are about as likely as whites to choose S&E fields; Asians/Pacific Islanders are more likely than members of other racial/ethnic groups to choose these fields. For Asians/Pacific Islanders, almost half of all bachelor’s degrees received are in S&E, compared with about one-third of all bachelor’s degrees earned by each of the other racial/ethnic groups.

The contrast in field distribution among whites, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives on the one hand and Asians/Pacific Islanders on the other is apparent within S&E fields as well. White, black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native S&E baccalaureate recipients share a similar distribution across broad S&E fields. In 2005, between 9% and 12% of all baccalaureate recipients in each of these racial/ethnic groups earned their degrees in the social sciences; 4% to 5%, in the biological sciences; and 3% to 4% in engineering and in computer sciences. Asian/Pacific Islander baccalaureate recipients earned higher proportions of their baccalaureates in biological sciences, computer sciences, and engineering (appendix table 2-28Excel.).

For all racial/ethnic groups (except white), the total number of bachelor’s degrees, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in most S&E fields (except computer sciences) generally increased over the past two decades. After steep increases since the late 1990s, students in each racial/ethnic group earned sharply fewer bachelor’s degrees in computer sciences in 2005. For white students, the total number of bachelor’s degrees, the number of S&E bachelor’s degrees, and the number of bachelor’s degrees in most S&E fields, generally dropped between 1993 and 2001 and increased since then. The number of computer science bachelor’s degrees earned by white students dropped in 2004 and 2005 (appendix table 2-28Excel.).

Bachelor’s Degrees by Citizenship

Over the past two decades, students on temporary visas in the United States consistently earned a small share (4%) of S&E degrees at the bachelor’s level. However, they earned 8% of bachelor’s degrees awarded in computer sciences in 2005 and 7% of those awarded in engineering. The number of S&E bachelor’s degrees awarded to students on temporary visas increased over the past two decades from about 14,100 in 1985 to 18,400 in 2005. Trends in the number of degrees by field generally followed the pattern noted above for all racial/ethnic groups except whites (appendix table 2-28Excel.).

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S&E Master’s Degrees

Master’s degrees are often the terminal degree for students in some fields, for example, engineering and geology. In other fields, master’s degrees are a step toward a doctoral degree, and in yet others, master’s degrees are awarded when students fail to advance to the doctoral level. A relatively new development, professional master’s degrees, often stress interdisciplinary training and preparation for work in emerging fields (NSB 2006).

Master’s degrees in S&E fields increased from 70,600 in 1985 to 120,000 in 2005 (appendix table 2-29Excel.). Increases occurred in most major S&E fields. Master’s degrees in engineering and physical sciences dipped from 1995 to 2002 but increased in recent years, and master’s degrees in computer sciences generally increased through 2004 but dropped in 2005 (figure 2-17figure.).

Master’s Degrees by Sex

Since 1985, the number of S&E master’s degrees earned by women more than doubled, rising from 22,300 to 53,100 in 2005 (figure 2-18figure.). The number of master’s degrees earned by men grew more slowly from 48,200 in 1985 to 67,000 in 2005, with most of the growth between 2002 and 2004. As a result, the percentage of women earning master’s degrees rose steadily during the past two decades. In 1985, women earned 32% of all S&E master’s degrees; by 2005, they earned 44% (appendix table 2-29Excel.).

Women’s share of S&E master’s degrees varies by field. In 2005, women earned a majority of master’s degrees in psychology (79%), biological sciences (60%), social sciences (56%), and agricultural sciences (53%); they earned their lowest share in engineering, although their share in 2005 (22%) was higher than their share in 1985 (11%) (appendix table 2-29Excel.). The number and percentage of master’s degrees awarded to women in all major S&E fields (with the exception of computer sciences) increased since 1985. In computer sciences, the number of master’s degrees awarded to women increased through 2004 but dropped in 2005, and the percentage of degrees awarded to women dropped from 34% in 2001 to 28% in 2005.

Master’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

The number of S&E master’s degrees awarded increased for all racial/ethnic groups from 1985 to 2005, although degrees to white students dropped from 1996 to 2002 before increasing again (figure 2-19figure.).[14] Trends in the number of master’s degrees by field were similar for most racial/ethnic groups except white. For most groups, the number of master’s degrees in engineering, biological sciences, and social and behavioral sciences generally rose throughout the period 1985–2005. The number of master’s degrees in physical sciences generally dropped, especially from 1995 to 2005, and the number of master’s degrees in computer sciences generally increased but dropped sharply in 2005. Master’s degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native students generally followed this pattern except for drops in most fields in 2005. Master’s degrees awarded to Asian/Pacific Islander students generally followed this pattern except for a drop in the number of engineering degrees from 1997 to 2002. For white students, the number of master’s degrees awarded in most S&E fields dropped in the mid-1990s through 2002 before increasing again through 2005. As was the case for most racial/ethnic groups, the number of computer science master’s degrees earned by white students rose through 2004 but dropped sharply in 2005 (appendix table 2-30Excel.).

The proportion of master’s degrees in S&E fields earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident racial and ethnic minorities increased over the past two decades. Asians/Pacific Islanders accounted for 7% of master’s degrees in 2005, up from 5% in 1985. Blacks and Hispanics also registered gains during this period (from 3% to 6% for blacks and from 2% to 4% for Hispanics). American Indians/Alaska Natives earned 0.4% of S&E master’s degrees in 1985 and 2005. The percentage of S&E master’s degrees earned by white students fell from 68% in 1985 to 47% in 2005 as the percentage of degrees earned by minorities and temporary residents increased (appendix table 2-30Excel.).

Master’s Degrees by Citizenship

S&E master’s degrees awarded to students on temporary visas rose from approximately 12,500 in 1985 to about 33,500 in 2005, and increased in most S&E fields during that period. The number of degrees generally rose through 2004 but dropped in 2005, especially in computer sciences and engineering. The number of physical sciences and biological sciences master’s degrees earned by students on temporary visas dropped in the mid-1990s but increased from 2002 to 2005.

Foreign students make up a much higher proportion of S&E master’s degree recipients than they do of bachelor’s or associate’s degree recipients. During the past two decades, the share of S&E master’s degrees earned by temporary residents rose from 19% to 28%. Their degrees are heavily concentrated in computer sciences and engineering, where they earned 42% and 44%, respectively, of all master’s degrees awarded in 2005 (appendix table 2-30Excel.). Within engineering, students on temporary visas earned more than half of master’s degrees in chemical engineering (51%) and in electrical engineering (55%). Temporary residents also earned a high share of master’s degrees in economics (49%).

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S&E Doctoral Degrees

Global economic competition and the spreading conviction that highly educated workforces are key to successfully building growth economies increased interest both in the United States and abroad in the supply of foreign and domestic doctorate recipients and their migration across borders.

The number of S&E research doctorates conferred annually by U.S. universities reached a new peak of almost 30,000 in 2005.[15] After rising from the mid-1980s through 1998, the number of S&E doctorates declined through 2002 but increased in recent years. (For information on employment of recent doctorate recipients, see "Labor Market Conditions for Recent S&E Graduates" in chapter 3, Science and Engineering Labor Force, and "Trends in Academic Employment of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers" in chapter 5, Academic Research and Development.) The increases through the mid-1990s as well as the recent growth through 2005 largely reflected growth in the number of foreign degree recipients. The largest increases were in engineering and biological/agricultural sciences (figure 2-20figure.). The 2003 through 2005 increases in earned doctorates reflect more degrees earned by both U.S. citizens and non-U.S. citizens (see the discussion in this chapter on foreign S&E doctorate recipients).

Doctoral Degrees by Sex

Among U.S. citizens, the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by women has risen considerably in the past two decades, reaching a record high of 46% in 2005 (appendix table 2-31Excel.). During this period, women made gains in all major fields. However, as figure 2-21figure. shows, considerable differences by field continue. Women earn half or more of doctorates in non-S&E fields, in social/behavioral sciences, and in life sciences, but they earn considerably less than half of doctorates in physical sciences (29%), math/computer sciences (24%), and engineering (20%) (appendix table 2-31). Although the percentages of degrees earned by women in these fields is low, they are substantially higher than was the case in 1985 (16%, 17%, and 9%, respectively).

The increase in the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by women resulted from both an increase in the number of women and a decrease in the number of men earning such degrees. The number of U.S. citizen women earning doctorates in S&E increased from 4,400 in 1985 to 7,500 in 2005 (appendix table 2-31Excel.). Meanwhile, the number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S. citizen men declined from 9,300 in 1985 to 8,600 in 2005. The increase in the number of S&E doctorates earned by women occurred in most major S&E fields. For example, the number of engineering doctorates earned by U.S. citizen women increased from 119 in 1985 to 396 in 2005; biological sciences doctorates from 1,032 to 2,024; physical sciences doctorates from 323 to 516; and social/behavioral sciences doctorates from 2,224 to 3,117. A decrease in the number of doctorates earned by men after the mid-1990s occurred in non-S&E fields as well as in engineering and in most science fields (except for biological sciences and medical/other life sciences).[16]

Doctoral Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

The number and proportion of doctoral degrees in S&E fields earned by U.S. citizen underrepresented minorities also increased over the past two decades. Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives together earned almost 1,600 S&E doctorates in 2005, accounting for 5% of all S&E doctorate degrees earned that year, up from 3% in 1985. (Their share of S&E doctorate degrees earned by all U.S. citizens rose from 4% to 10% in the same period.) Gains by all groups contributed to this rise. The number of S&E degrees earned by blacks and Hispanics more than doubled in this period and the number of S&E degrees earned by American Indians/Alaska Natives increased from 43 to 70 (figure 2-22figure.).

The underrepresented minority share of doctorates in some S&E fields is greater than in others. In 2005, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives as a group earned 11% of doctoral degrees in psychology, 9% in medical/other life sciences, 8% in social sciences, and 6% in biological sciences. In most other S&E fields they earned approximately 3% of doctoral degrees awarded in 2005 (appendix table 2-32Excel.). In non-S&E fields, they earned 11% of doctorates in 2005. Among U.S. citizens only, they earned 15% of non-S&E doctorates.

In the mid-1990s, the number of doctoral degrees earned by Asian/Pacific Islander U.S. citizens showed a steep increase. Asians/Pacific Islanders earned more than 4% of S&E doctorates in 2005, up from 2% in 1985. They earned relatively larger shares of doctoral degrees in biological sciences (7%) and medical sciences (8%), and relatively smaller shares in agricultural sciences (1%) and earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (2%).

The number of S&E doctorates earned by white U.S. citizens remained relatively stable over the past two decades, fluctuating from around 12,000 to 14,000 degrees awarded annually; however, the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by white U.S. citizens decreased. The share of all doctoral S&E degrees earned by white U.S. citizens decreased from 63% in 1985 to 43% in 2005 as the number and percentage of S&E doctorates earned by non-U.S. citizens and minorities increased, and the white U.S. citizen share of degrees awarded to all U.S. citizens declined from 90% to 79% as the number and percentage of S&E doctorates earned by minorities increased (appendix table 2-32Excel.). Although the total number of doctoral S&E degrees earned by white U.S. citizens remained fairly stable over the past two decades, the number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by white male U.S. citizens declined in the mid-1990s through 2002 (from about 8,600 in 1994 to 6,900 in 2002) and remained around that same number through 2005 (figure 2-23figure.). The number of degrees earned by white U.S. citizen females generally increased over much of the past three decades, with the exception of brief declines in 2001 and 2002. The drop in doctoral degrees to whites corresponds to the earlier drop in the college age population mentioned previously in this chapter. Although the number of white women in the college age population dropped, the percentages of white women in that age group earning doctorates in general and in S&E fields specifically both increased.

Foreign S&E Doctorate Recipients

Foreign students, even those who stay in the United States after graduation, contribute to science in their own countries by collaborating in increasingly global scientific networks, generating new knowledge, and helping to increase scientific capacity (NSB 2000, 2002, 2004b, 2006; Wagner 2007).

Noncitizens, primarily those with temporary visas, account for the bulk of the growth in S&E doctorates awarded by U.S. universities from 1985 through 2005. During this period, the number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S. citizens fluctuated from approximately 14,000 to about 17,000, while the number earned by temporary residents rose from 4,200 to a peak of 10,800 in 2005. The temporary resident share of S&E doctorates rose from 21% in 1985 to 36% in 2005. The number of S&E doctorates earned by students with permanent resident visas increased from about 1,000 in 1985 to a peak of 3,614 in 1995, before falling to about 1,200 in 2005 (appendix table 2-32Excel.). (In the mid-1990s, the number of doctorates awarded to students with permanent resident visas showed a steep increase when a large number of Chinese doctoral degree students on temporary visas shifted to permanent resident status under the 1992 Chinese Student Protection Act.)

Foreign students on temporary visas earn a larger proportion of their degrees at the doctoral level than at any other level (figure 2-24figure.). Their proportion in some fields is even higher. For example, in 2005, foreign students on temporary visas earned half or more of doctoral degrees awarded in engineering, mathematics, computer sciences, physics, and economics. They earned considerably lower proportions of doctoral degrees in other S&E fields, for example, 26% in biological sciences, 22% in medical/other life sciences, and 6% in psychology (appendix table 2-32Excel.).

Countries/Economies of Origin

The top 10 foreign countries/economies of origin of foreign S&E doctorate recipients together accounted for 65% of all foreign recipients of a U.S. S&E doctorate from 1985 to 2005 (table 2-8table.). All but 2 of those top 10 countries are located in Asia. The major Asian countries/economies sending doctoral degree students to the United States have been, in descending order, China, Taiwan, South Korea, and India. (Canada and Mexico were also among the top 10.)

Asia. The number of U.S. S&E doctorates earned by students from Asia increased from the mid-1980s until the mid- to late 1990s, followed by a brief decline and then increases in recent years (figure 2-25figure.). Most of these degrees were awarded in engineering and biological and physical sciences (table 2-9table.). From 1985 to 2005, students from four Asian countries/economies (China, Taiwan, India, and South Korea) earned more than half of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees awarded to foreign students (98,400 of 189,300), almost four times more than students from Europe (25,500).

China had the largest number of students earning U.S. S&E doctorates during the 1985–2005 period. These students received almost 42,000 S&E doctoral degrees from U.S. universities, mainly in biological and physical sciences and engineering (table 2-9table.). The number of S&E doctorates earned by Chinese nationals increased from 151 in 1985 to more than 3,500 in 2005 (figure 2-25figure.).[17]

Students from Taiwan received the second-largest number of S&E doctorates at U.S. universities. Between 1985 and 2005, students from Taiwan earned more than 19,000 S&E doctoral degrees, mainly in engineering and biological and physical sciences (table 2-9table.). In 1985, they earned more U.S. S&E doctoral degrees than students from India and China combined. The number of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees earned by students from Taiwan increased rapidly for almost a decade, from 854 in 1985 to more than 1,300 at its peak in 1994. However, as universities in Taiwan increased their capacity for advanced S&E education in the 1990s, the number of students from Taiwan earning S&E doctorates from U.S. universities declined to 488 in 2005 (figure 2-25figure.).

Students from India earned more than 18,700 S&E doctoral degrees at U.S. universities over the period. Like students from China and Taiwan, they mainly earned doctorates in engineering and biological and physical sciences. They also earned by far the largest number (1,515) of U.S. doctoral degrees awarded to any foreign group in computer sciences. The more than decade-long increase in U.S. S&E doctorates earned by students from India ended in 1997, followed by 5 years of decline (figure 2-25figure.). The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by students from India increased from 2003 through 2005.

Students from South Korea earned almost 19,000 U.S. S&E doctorates from 1985 to 2005, mainly in engineering and biological, social, and physical sciences. The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by South Korean students increased from about 350 in 1985 to 1,178 in 1994, declined to a low of about 800 in the late 1990s, and increased to 1,200 in 2005 (figure 2-25figure.).

Europe. European students earned far fewer U.S. S&E doctorates (25,500) than did Asian students (130,400) between 1985 and 2005, and they tended to focus less on engineering than did their Asian counterparts (table 2-10table.). Western European countries whose students earned the largest number of U.S. S&E doctorates from 1985 to 2005 were Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Italy, and France, in that order. From 1985 to 1993, Greece and the United Kingdom were the primary European countries of origin; thereafter, their numbers of doctoral degree recipients declined. The numbers of U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from Germany, Italy, and France generally increased over the past two decades, although doctorate recipients from Germany declined in recent years (figure 2-26figure.). Scandinavians received fewer U.S. doctorates than did students from the other European regions, with a field distribution roughly similar to that for other Western Europeans (table 2-10).

The number of Central and Eastern European students earning S&E doctorates at U.S. universities increased from fewer than 70 in 1985 to more than 800 in 2005 (figure 2-27figure.). A higher proportion of Central and Eastern European U.S. doctorate recipients (88%) than of Western European doctorate recipients (73%) earned their doctorates in S&E fields. Western Europeans earned U.S. S&E doctorates mainly in engineering and biological, physical, and social sciences. Central and Eastern Europeans earned U.S. S&E doctorates mainly in engineering, biological sciences, physical sciences, and mathematics (table 2-10table.).

North America. The Canadian and Mexican shares of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees were small compared with those from Asia and Europe. The number of U.S. S&E degrees earned by students from Canada increased from less than 200 in 1985 to almost 400 in 2005. In all, 64% of Canadian doctoral degree students in U.S. universities earned S&E doctorates, mainly in social and biological sciences (figure 2-28figure.; table 2-10table.). Mexican doctoral degree students in U.S. universities are more concentrated in S&E fields than are Canadian students: 85% of doctoral degrees earned by Mexican students at U.S. universities were in S&E fields, mainly engineering and agricultural, biological, and social sciences. The number of doctoral degree recipients from Mexico increased from 111 in 1985 to more than 200 in 2005.

Stay Rates

Of the approximately 3.4 million immigrant scientists and engineers residing in the United States in 2003, about 30% initially came to the United States for educational opportunities and then remained in this country (NSF/SRS 2007b). This section examines data on foreign S&E doctorate recipients’ plans for staying in the United States at the time of doctorate receipt. Chapter 3 provides data based on examination of Social Security records on the percentage of foreign students with U.S. S&E doctorates who remain in the U.S. labor force up to 5 years after graduation.

At the time of doctorate receipt, almost three-quarters of foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates plan to stay in the United States and about half had either accepted an offer of postdoctoral study or employment or are continuing employment in the United States. Until the early 1990s, about half of foreign students who earned S&E degrees at U.S. universities reported that they planned to stay in the United States after graduation, and about one-third said they had firm offers for postdoctoral study or employment (NSB 1998). In the 1990s, however, these percentages increased substantially. In the 1994–97 period, for example, of the foreign S&E doctoral degree recipients who reported their plans, 71% planned to remain in the United States after receiving their degree and 39% already had firm offers for postdoctoral study or employment. In the 2002–05 period, 74% of foreign doctoral recipients in S&E fields with known plans intended to stay in the United States and 49% had firm offers to do so (appendix table 2-33Excel.). Higher percentages of foreign doctorate recipients in physical sciences and mathematics/computer sciences and lower percentages of those in social/behavioral sciences reported firm plans to stay. The percentage of students who had firm plans to remain in the United States dropped after 2001 but increased in 2005 (figure 2-29figure.).

Stay rates vary by place of origin. In the 2002–05 period, more than 90% of U.S. S&E doctoral recipients from China and 88% of those from India reported plans to stay in the United States, and 60% and 63%, respectively, reported accepting firm offers for employment or postdoctoral research in the United States (figure 2-30figure.; appendix table 2-33Excel.). China and India are the two major countries of origin from which the percentage of U.S. S&E doctorate recipients with definite plans to stay in the United States dropped from 1998–2001 to 2002–05. The drops were almost entirely among computer science doctorate recipients from India and engineering doctorate recipients from India and China. Stay rates for Chinese and Indian U.S. doctorate recipients in the biological/agricultural/health sciences and physical/earth/atmospheric/ocean sciences increased or stayed about the same from 1998–2001 to 2002–05, and those in social/behavioral sciences stayed about the same or dropped slightly.

Doctorate recipients from Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea were less likely than those from India and China to stay in the United States. Over the same 2002–05 period, 39% of S&E doctoral degree recipients from Taiwan, 41% of those from Japan, and 43% of those from South Korea reported accepting firm offers to remain in the United States.

Among U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Europe, a relatively high percentage from the United Kingdom planned to stay, whereas smaller percentages from Greece, Italy, and Spain (compared with other Western European countries) planned to stay after graduation. The percentage of 2002–05 doctoral degree students who had firm plans to stay in the United States was higher for Canada (51%) than for Mexico (31%) (appendix table 2-33Excel.).

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Postdocs in U.S. Higher Education

Postdoctoral fellowships provide recent doctorate recipients with "an opportunity to develop further the research skills acquired in their doctoral programs or to learn new research techniques" (Association of American Universities 1998). Typically, postdoctoral fellows or "postdocs" have temporary appointments involving full-time research or scholarship whose purpose is to further their education and training. The titles associated with these positions and the conditions of employment vary widely. The status of postdoctoral fellows within the academic hierarchy is not well defined and varies among institutions, although the concept that the postdoctoral experience represents the last step on a person’s training for becoming an independent investigator and faculty member is generally accepted (COSEPUP 2000). Postdoctoral fellows are also important contributors to academic research. They bring a new set of techniques and perspectives to the laboratory that broadens the experience of the research team and can make them more competitive for additional research funding. Chapter 3 provides more detail on postdoctoral employment, including reasons for and length of postdoc position as well as salaries and subsequent employment. Chapter 5 provides more detail on postdocs in the academic R&D setting.

Since 1985, the number of doctoral degree recipients with science, engineering, and health postdoctoral appointments at U.S. universities more than doubled from 22,400 to 48,700 in 2005 (appendix table 2-34Excel.). More than two-thirds of those were in biological, medical, and other life sciences (figure 2-31figure.).[18]

Noncitizens account for much of the increase in the number of S&E postdocs, especially in biological sciences and medical and other life sciences. The number of S&E postdocs with temporary visas at U.S. universities increased from approximately 8,900 in 1985 to 27,000 in 2005. The number of U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E postdocs at these institutions increased more modestly from approximately 13,500 in 1985 to 21,700 in 2005 (figure 2-32figure.; appendix table 2-34Excel.). Temporary visa holders accounted for 55% of S&E postdocs in 2005.

An increasing share of academic S&E postdocs are funded through federal research grants. In fall 2005, 57% of S&E postdocs at U.S. universities were funded through this mechanism, up from 50% in 1985. Federal fellowships and traineeships funded a declining share of S&E postdocs—14% in 2005, down from 22% in 1985. In 2005, the remainder (about 30%) of S&E postdocs were funded through nonfederal sources (table 2-11table.).

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Notes

[10] About 17% of 2001 and 2002 S&E bachelor's degree recipients had previously earned an associate's degree (NSF 2006a).

[11] Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.

[12] See the NSF report series Science and Engineering Degrees (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/degrees/) for longer degree trends and Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2007 (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/women/) for more detail on enrollments and degrees by sex and by race/ethnicity.

[13] Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.

[14] Data for racial/ethnic groups are for U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.

[15] Data on doctorates comes from the NSF Survey of Earned Doctorates, which collects data on research doctorates only (i.e., doctorates that require original research and typically entail writing a dissertation). The survey does not collect data on professional degrees (e.g., M.D., D.D.S., J.D., Psy.D., and D.Min.). For the most recent data available, including data by detailed field and data on math and science education doctorates, see http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/doctorates/.

[16] See the NSF report series Science and Engineering Degrees (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/degrees/) for longer degree trends and Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2007 (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/women/) for more detail on enrollments and degrees by sex and by race/ethnicity.

[17] The number of doctoral S&E degrees earned by students in Chinese universities continued to increase throughout this period, from 125 in 1985 to 14,858 in 2004.

[18] For more information about the distribution of postdoc positions according to sex, see Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2007 at http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd.

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