Fire Flame Tips
Ground control burning. FWS photo.
Smoke Plumes & Power Lines -- How They Interact
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Power Line "Breakdown"
ATV Torch Operations Guide
New Publications
Bibliographies
Air Quality Activities
Publications of Interest
Note From the Editor
Power Line "Breakdown"
Contributed
by Cal Gale, Chief, Branch Forestry/Fire Management
Do smoke plumes cause power line "breakdown," that is, shorting
of the lines to each other or to ground? No. Smoke can act to contaminate
insulators, so an insulator can flash over, as it might do from salt
or other kinds of contamination.
Flames, and the hot air resulting from flames, do cause flash overs from line to line and from line to ground. Hot air reduces what is called the flash over potential, and flame is, compared to air (even hot air) a good conductor. Because the power line is, so to speak, always ready for a flash over, even a brief flicker of flame is sufficient. An outage may or may not result.
Flash over can also result from power lines brushing up against trees. There may or may not be a resulting fire. At least one tree that did brush a power line did start a fire, and the scar on the tree trunk looked like a lightning strike scar.
Heat from a fire can also cause line sag, although the flame is still necessary for a flash over. The amount of sag depends on the heat release by the fire. No numbers are available connecting fire to sag or flash over at this time.
The best rule of thumb available now is to look at flame heights as calculated by BEHAVE or other programs for the fuels that would be involved in a surface fire. Obviously, a power line in a forest corridor can be involved in a full-blown crowning fire, in which case there will almost certainly be a flash over. Fuel treatments in the power line corridor should reduce the fuels so that the flame length for the remaining fuels is less than one half the distance to the lowest point of the span. Nothing can be done about the odd chance that a "bubble" of flame can cause a line-to-line flash over, unless the fuels are reduced to nearly nothing. Clearly, this is neither monetarily nor ecologically desirable.
Source: USDA Forest Service Fire Research Laboratory
ATV Torch Operations Guide
Introduction -- The all-terrain vehicle (ATV) torch is a highly specialized and efficient piece of ignition equipment. From the earliest use as basic transportation for a crew member holding a drip torch, to its current configuration of an integral power torch mounted on a rear cargo platform, the ATV torch has greatly increased the capability of ground ignition crews. When used properly, the ATV torch can provide access into difficult areas, enhance the speed of groundmfiring operations, and provide an extra safety factor for ground firing personnel. However, like all specialized equipment, it has definite limitations and is potentially dangerous if the limits are exceeded. Because this equipment is routinely operated under adverse conditions and in a fire environment, special safety considerations are needed. It is important to note that the handling characteristics of an ATV torch can be substantially different from a conventional ATV. Specialized operations and safety training should be required for the ATV torch operator, in addition to basic ATV certification through the Specialty Vehicle Institute of America (SVIA).
This Operations Guide is the result of an interagency effort representing the cumulative knowledge and experience of Federal and State agencies that have been instrumental in the development and implementation of the ATV torch as a valuable tool for prescribed burning. The agencies represented on the task force that prepared this guide each have up to 10 years' experience in the use of ATV's for prescribed burning. They represent some of the largest prescribed burning programs in the United States.
In response to safety concerns, the interagency team reviewed equipment and safety standards, as well as accident reports from incidents that resulted in loss or damage to equipment and near-miss situations. A common factor in most incidents resulting in the loss of equipment was immobilization of the ATV during firing operations. Two major causes for immobilization were identified:
- Mechanical failure of the ATV unit itself.
- Operator misjudgement that resulted in the ATV getting stuck, high-centered, or otherwise immobilized.
Additional contributing factors included inexperience or poorly trained operators, careless operation, inappropriate tactics, and excessive operating speeds in rolling, steep, or sandy terrain.
The interagency team recognizes that there are some inherent risks involved in operating ATV's.
This ATV Torch Operations Guide was developed to identify safety considerations, set minimum recommended equipment standards, and recommend operational procedures. The items recommended to be made mandatory by any agency using the ATV torch are identified with bold type.
The purpose of this guide is to minimize potential hazards and maximize safe operation of the ATV torch. The guide is not meant to supersede any specific agency directive or guides, nor is it meant to endorse any specific products. Instead, the writers hope that it will be adopted in whole or in part by all prescribed burning groups in the South to raise the level of operator safety during use of the ATV torch and to help protect our ability to use this valuable piece of equipment.
Editor's Note: This publication is a user need product of the North Florida Prescribed Fire Council, an interagency group of federal, state, industry, NGO and private prescribed fire practitioners. The USFWS representative was Rolf Olson, AFMO, St. Marks NWR. For copies of this guide contact Joe Ferguson, USDA Forest Service, Apalachicola National Forest, 904/643-2282.
New Publications
"Fundamentals
of Uneven-Aged Management in Southern Pine" by Robert
M. Farrar, Jr.
Abstract-Background and definitions for density control in selection
stands of loblolly-shortleaf pine (Pinus taeda, P. Echinata) and longleaf
pine (P. Palustris) are discussed. Concepts and contrasts with even-aged
techniques are graphically illustrated. Uneven-aged management techniques
are presented in the context of three methods of regulating the cut
in uneven-aged stands: volume-guiding diameter limit, basal area-maximum
DBH-q, and modified diameter limit. Sub-merchantable stand density and
unwanted vegetation control consideration are also discussed. Information
is given on structure changes, volume production, and reproduction establishment
and development. Observations on stand development and necessary modifications
in practices for different species are also presented. Areas of needed
information are discussed, including extension of method to slash pine
(P. elliottii) and sand pine (P. clausa). Finally, the advantages and
disadvantages of uneven-aged management noted thus far for southern
pine are given.
Editor's Note: If you wold like a copy of this Miscellaneous Publication No. 9 for $20.00 + $3.50 (shipping and handling) , please contact the Library at Tall Timbers Research Station at 904/893-4153, ext. 234.
Ground control burning. FWS photo.
Bibliographies
The following bibliographies are available by contacting Katherine Ross at 904/893-4153, ext. 250.
Prescribed Fires
& Endangered or Vulnerable Species - 163 Citations Provided
Picoides borealis - 144 Citations Provided
Gopher Tortoise - 49 Citations Provided
Fire Effects and Bottomland Hardwoods - 55 Citations
Provided
Bottomland Hardwoods - 91 Citations Provided
Air Quality Activities
Land Management/Wildland
Fire-Air Quality Activities - Contributed by Bill Leenhouts,
NIFC
Office of Air Quality, Planning and Standards has begun a 18-month "Prescribed
Fire Policy Review" to explore current PM10 air regulatory policy
as it relates to prescribed fire and develop recommendations on how
best to resolve these issues. The process will be managed by a steering
committee. Federal land management interests on the steering committee
will consist of one representative from the Interior Department, BIA,
BLM, NPS, and FWS and two representatives from the Forest Service. The
steering committee will organize individual task groups to address specific
areas of concern. WESTAR was contracted to organize and manage the logistical
functions. This review complements the "Natural or Exceptional
Events" policy review that the EPA just finished dealing with wildfire/Clean
Air Act issues.
PM2.5 air quality regulations are currently being developed by the EPA. Draft regulations should be available for review in 1997.
The Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission has issued its recommendations for managing visibility in the 11 Western States. Wildland fire was only one of several concerns the Commission addressed. The Commission recognized that wildland fire is a natural process and there needs to be more prescribed fire in the future to address the forest health and wildfire problems in Western ecosystems. Elements of the recommendations include planning, emissions tracking, emissions assessments and modeling, cooperative funding, public education, emission goals, and alternatives to burning.
The recommendations have
stimulated the Department of the Interior to establish a department
task group that will:
- Develop implementation strategies to address the Commission's recommendations.
- Address other national prescribed fire/air quality issues related to the increased use of prescribed fire outlined in the Federal Wildland Fire Policy and Program Review.
Publications of Interest
Effects of Fire Regime and Habitat on Tree Dynamics in North Florida Longleaf Pine Savannas -Jeff S. Glitzenstein, William J. Platt, Donna R. Streng.
Abstract - Frequent, low intensity fire was an important component of the natural disturbance regime of presettlement savannas and woodlands in the southeastern USA dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), and prescribed burning is now a critical part of the management of these endangered habitats. Fire season, fire frequency, and fire intensity are three potentially important, though still little understood, components of both natural and managed fire regimes. In this long-term (8-yr) study, we experimentally (through the use of prescribed burning) tested for effects of fire season (eight different times throughout the year) and fire frequency (annual vs. Biennial burning), on population dynamics (recruitment, growth, mortality, change in density, and change in basal area [the total basal area of all stems in a plot]) and species composition of trees in two quite different types of longleaf-pine dominated habitats (north Florida sandhills and flatwoods). Limited fire temperature and intensity data were also collected during one year to examine the relationship between fire behavior (temperature and intensity) and tree mortality.
Contrary to prior hypotheses, our results showed few systematic or predictable effects of season or frequency of burning on dynamics of longleaf pine. Instead, variability in the population dynamics of this species appeared to be related largely to variation in fire behavior, regardless of the season of burning.
Consistent with prior hypotheses, we found that deciduous oak species (Quercus laevis, Q. Margaretta, and Q. Incana) were least vulnerable to dormant-season burning and most vulnerable to burning early in the growing season. This was shown particularly by seasonable trends in the effect of burning on oak mortality (both topkill and complete kill) and, to a lesser extent, on oak recruitment. Oak densities and basal areas also declined in the spring- burned plots, resulting in a shift away from oaks and toward increased dominance by longleaf pine. Detrimental effects of spring burning on oaks were partly explained by fire behavior, but there appeared also to be an important residual effect of burning season, particularly on complete kill.
Though longleaf pine population dynamics did not differ markedly as a result of burning season and frequency, we did find important differences in pine dynamics between the two habitats (i.e., sandhills and flatwoods). In general, populations of longleaf pines in the sandhills appeared to be density regulated, while flatwoods pine populations were declining regardless of the level of intra specific competition. This suggests that long-term persistence of longleaf pine, and perhaps other fire-adapted species in frequently burned longleaf-pine-dominated communities, may be determined by complex interactions between habitat factors and fire regimes.
Citation: Ecological Monographs, 65(4), 1995, pp. 441-476.
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Biodiversity of Saline and Brackish Marshes of the Indian River Lagoon: Historic and Current Patterns - Paul A. Schmalzer
Abstract - The Indian River Lagoon (IRL) crosses a zone of climatic transition. Historically, marshes dominated saline and brackish environments in the north of the lagoon, while mangroves were dominant to the south. Periodic freezes limited mangrove distribution and abundance. A unique feature of most IRL marshes was seasonal and wind- driver tidal inundation rather than daily tidal fluctuations; near inlets, tidally influenced marshes occurred. Distribution of marsh communities was influenced by hydrology, salinity, soil characteristics, and fire, as well as periodic freezes.
Major marsh community types included cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) savanna, sand cordgrass (Spartina bakeri) marsh, black rush (Juncus roemerianus)marsh, saltgrass marsh (Distichlis spicata, Paspalum distichum), and mixed halophyte (Batis maritima, Salicornia virginica) marsh. Mud flats occupied significant areas. Black (Avicennia germinans) and white (Languncularia racemosa) mangroves occurred in some areas in open to dense stands associated with saltgrasses and mixed halophytes. Red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) apparently occurred as scattered individuals fringing the lagoon. Many of these communities were marked by a few dominant species and relatively low within-community plant species diversity. The resulting landscape pattern was complex and diverse. Marshes of the Indian River Lagoon have been greatly modified since the 1940s. Impoundment or ditching for mosquito control has affected most areas. Much of the low marsh was replaced by open water or by extensive cattail (Typha cf. Domingensis) marshes. Loss of connection with the uplands and changed hydrology probably reduced fire frequency and intensity in the high marshes, favoring invasion by wetland shrubs (Salix caroliniana, Myrica cerifera, Baccharis spp.) And the exotic Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius). Other impacts of marshes include dredging and filling and nutrient enrichment. Dominant and characteristic plant species of these saline and brackish marshes are widespread throughout the Indian River lagoon. Few rare plants are associated with Indian River Lagoon marshes. Despite significant modifications, marsh plant species have not been lost from the region, but community and landscape patterns have been greatly modified and ecosystem processes altered. Vertebrates dependent on these marshes have not all faired as well, as evidenced by the extinction of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens) that depended on marshes of the Indian River Lagoon and the St. Johns River.
Citation: Bulletin of Marine Science, 57(1):37-48, 1995.
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GIS and Remote Sensing as Wetland Resource Management Tools: The Fire Monitoring Example - Elijah W. Ramsey, III, Ruth E. Spell and Richard M. Day
Abstract: In a preliminary analysis of burn monitoring, site-specific canopy reflectance spectra and light attenuation curves were acquired for a number of Panicum hemitomon (fresh marsh) sites in coastal Louisiana. Near the time of reflectance acquisitions, thematic mapper scenes were obtained for winter, spring, and summer analysis. Three sites chosen for monitoring canopy reflectance depicted changes in unburned, winter-burned, and spring-burned marsh. Nondistinct reflectance spectra typified winter acquisitions; the two unburned sites were associated with higher reflectance amplitudes. Spring reflectance acquisitions showed a more defined Red-edge and Near-Infrared plateau in the winter burned spectra, but still of lower overall amplitude than associated with the unburned sites. By summer, canopy reflectance associated with all three sites were nearly identical although slight amplitude differences existed. Light-penetration curves taken a year later, showed changes over time at two marsh sites.
Acquisition times-covered preburn, spring recovery, and summer. By summer, even though light attenuation remained higher at the unburned site, similar profiles characterized both sites. By using a simple clustering algorithm, winter, spring, and summer thematic mapper images of the study area were classified into nonmarsh and Panicum hemitomon burned and unburned marsh. The winter image contained no burned marsh areas, while the spring and summer images contained various stages of marsh burn and recovery. Comparison among all images indicated that winter-early spring burns were identifiable on the spring image, but not all winter-early spring burns were identifiable in summer. Spring burns--post-spring image--were detectable on the summer image, as were some winter-early spring burns; however, the two burn ages were not separable. To separate all burn histories, spring and summer classified burn maps were combined to produce a map depicting changes in marsh areas covering winter-spring-summer; a burn history map.
Citation: Published in the Proceedings of an International Workshop on Requirements for Integrated Geographic Information Systems, 2-3 February 1994, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
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The Potential Impact of Herbivores on the Susceptibility of the Marsh Plant Sagittaria lancifolia to Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal Wetlands - James B. Grace and Mark A. Ford
Abstract: The objective of this study was the experimentally evaluate the effects of simulated herbivory on the ability of a freshwater marsh plant to recover from temporary saltwater intrusion such as can be caused by tropical storms. Sods containing Sagittaria lancifolia, a dominant plant in interior coastal marshes, were manipulated in the field so as to subject plants to a pulse of 15% salt water for a duration of 1 wk. In addition to the exposure to salt water, some plants were also subjected to both short-term and long-term flooding treatments of 20 cm, and the simulated herbivory (clipping). Following exposure to salt water, plants were allowed to recover over the winter and were harvested the next June. Neither simulated herbivory, nor salinity, nor flooding caused any long-term effect either singly or in pairwise combinations. However, when plants were subjected to herbivory, salt water, and flooding simultaneously, reduced growth and plant death occurred. These results suggest that high levels of grazing by herbivores may increase the susceptibility of coastal marsh plants to damage from saltwater intrusion.
Citation: Estuaries, Vol. 19, No. 1, p. 13-20, Marsh 1996.
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Effects of Fire on Threatened and Endangered Plants: An Annotated Bibliography - Amy Hessl and Susan Spackman
Abstract: This bibliography presents basic information about the effects of fire on plants that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered or threatened or as category-one (C1) candidates for federal listing. We searched 23 databases for publications, unpublished reports, and records with pertinent information; summarized and compiled information on the effects of fire from all final ruling on endangered and threatened plants and from endangered species recovery plans for plants; and solicited information from key researchers and agencies involved in fire ecology. The bibliography includes 126 references to the effect of fire on 172 federally listed plant species, or on 265 of the total number of federally listed plant species in these categories. Out study revealedthat the total number of relevant articles has been increasing since the 1970s and more rapidly since the 1980s.
Although research on fire and rare plants is increasing, an absence of information on many species persists. We hope that this document will facilitate and encourage research in this increasingly important field of botanical conservation.
Citation: U.S. Department of the Interior, Information and Technology Report 2, August 1995.
Note From the Editor
This is a publication of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Region, Division of Wildlife Habitat Management, Branch of Forestry/Fire Management, Fire Ecology Field Office. If you would like to contribute to this quarterly newsletter or have suggestions, please contact Frank T. Cole or Katherine K. Ross, at 904/893-4153, ext. 225 or 250, respectively.
