ATSDR
Environmental Medicine | CSEM | GREM | Continuing Education | Patient Education | PEHT | Community
Section Contents
References
 
Case Contents
Table of Contents
Cover Page
How to Use This Course
Initial Check
Chromium
Where Found
Exposure Pathways
Who Is at Risk
Standards, Regulations
Biological Fate
Physiologic Effects
Signs & Symptoms
Laboratory Tests
Treatment
Patient Education
More Information
Posttest
Printer-Friendly Printer-Friendly
 
Environmental Medicine
CSEM
GREM
PEHT
Continuing Education
Online Registration
Patient Education
Community Education
 
ATSDR Resources
ATSDR en Español
Case Studies (CSEM)
Exposure Pathways
HazDat Database
Health Assessments
Health Statements
Interaction Profiles
Interactive Learning
Managing Incidents
Medical Guidelines
Minimal Risk Levels
Priority List
ToxFAQs™
ToxFAQs™ CABS
Toxicological Profiles
Toxicology Curriculum
 
External Resources
CDC
eLCOSH
EPA
Healthfinder®
Medline Plus
NCEH
NIEHS
NIOSH
OSHA

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 
Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) 

Chromium Toxicity
Literature Cited

References

  • Adams, R. M. (1990). "In: Occupational Skin Disease, 2nd ed., Adams, RM, ed." Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, pp. 26-31.
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2000). "Toxicological Profile for Chromium." http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp7.html.
  • Aitio, A., J. Jarvisalo, et al. (1984). "Urinary excretion of chromium as an indicator of exposure to trivalent chromium sulphate in leather tanning." International Archives of Occupational & Environmental Health 54(3): 241-9.
  • Axelsson, G., R. Rylander, et al. (1980). "Mortality and incidence of tumours among ferrochromium workers." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 37(2): 121-7.
  • Baetjer, A. M. (1950). Pulmonary carcinoma in chromate workers. 1. A review of the literature and report of cases, A. M. A. Archives of Industrial Hygiene & Occupational Medicine. 2(5):487-504, 1950 Nov.
  • Baranowska-Dutkiewicz, B. (1981). "Absorption of hexavalent chromium by skin in man." Archives of Toxicology 47(1): 47-50.
  • Bonde, J. P., J. H. Olsen, et al. (1992). "Adverse pregnancy outcome and childhood malignancy with reference to paternal welding exposure." Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 18(3): 169-77.
  • Bradberry, S. M. and J. A. Vale (1999). "Therapeutic review: is ascorbic acid of value in chromium poisoning and chromium dermatitis?" Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 37(2): 195-200.
  • Braver, E. R., P. Infante, et al. (1985). "An analysis of lung cancer risk from exposure to hexavalent chromium." Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis, & Mutagenesis 5(5): 365-78.
  • Bruynzeel, D. P., G. Hennipman, et al. (1988). "Irritant contact dermatitis and chrome-passivated metal." Contact Dermatitis 19(3): 175-9.
  • Cohen, M. D. and M. Costa (1998). In: Rom WN, ed. Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Third Edition. Philadelphia, Lipponcott-Raven Publishers: pp.1045-1052.
  • Cohen, M. D., B. Kargacin, et al. (1993). "Mechanisms of chromium carcinogenicity and toxicity." Critical Reviews in Toxicology 23(3): 255-81.
  • Davies, J. M. (1984). "Lung cancer mortality among workers making lead chromate and zinc chromate pigments at three English factories." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 41(2): 158-69.
  • Dayan, A. D. and A. J. Paine (2001). "Mechanisms of chromium toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenicity: review of the literature from 1985 to 2000." Human & Experimental Toxicology 20(9): 439-51.
  • De Flora, S., G. S. Badolati, et al. (1987). "Circadian reduction of chromium in the gastric environment." Mutation Research 192(3): 169-74.
  • De Flora, S., M. Bagnasco, et al. (1990). "Genotoxicity of chromium compounds. A review." Mutation Research 238(2): 99-172.
  • De Mattia, G., M. C. Bravi, et al. (2004). "Impairment of cell and plasma redox state in subjects professionally exposed to chromium." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 46(2): 120-5.
  • Deng, J. F., A. K. Fleeger, et al. (1990). "An outbreak of chromium ulcer in a manufacturing plant." Veterinary & Human Toxicology 32(2): 142-6.
  • Donaldson, R. M., Jr. and R. F. Barreras (1966). "Intestinal absorption of trace quantities of chromium." Journal of Laboratory & Clinical Medicine 68(3): 484-93.
  • Ellis, E. N., B. H. Brouhard, et al. (1982). "Effects of hemodialysis and dimercaprol in acute dichromate poisoning." Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 19(3): 249-58.
  • EPA (1984a). "Health assessment document for chromium." Research Triangle Park, NC: Environmental Assessment and Criteria Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 600/8-83-014F.
  • EPA (1998). "Toxicological Review of Trivalent Chromium. CAS No. 16065-83-1. In support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C."
  • EPA (1999 h). "U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Code of Federal Regulations. 40 CFR 141.32."
  • Fagliano, J. A., J. Savrin, et al. (1997). "Community exposure and medical screening near chromium waste sites in New Jersey." Regulatory Toxicology & Pharmacology 26(1 Pt 2): S13-22.
  • Federal Register (2006). "Occupational Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium; Final Rule" Vol. 71, No. 39(Tuesday, February 28, 2006 / Rules and Regulations
  • Foa, V., L. Riboldi, et al. (1988). "Effects derived from long-term low-level chromium exposure in ferro-alloy metallurgy. Study of absorption and renal function in workers." Science of the Total Environment 71(3): 389-400.
  • Franchini, I. and A. Mutti (1988). "Selected toxicological aspects of chromium(VI) compounds." Science of the Total Environment 71(3): 379-87.
  • Fregert, S. and S. Fregert (1981). "Chromium valencies and cement dermatitis." British Journal of Dermatology 105 Suppl 21: 7-9.
  • Frentzel-Beyme, R. (1983). "Lung cancer mortality of workers employed in chromate pigment factories. A multicentric European epidemiological study." Journal of Cancer Research & Clinical Oncology 105(2): 183-8.
  • Gad, S. C. (1989). "Acute and chronic systemic chromium toxicity.[erratum appears in Sci Total Environ 1990 Jun;95:295]." Science of the Total Environment 86(1-2): 149-57.
  • Geller, R. (2001). "Chromium." In:Clinical Environmental Health and Toxic Exposures. Sullivan, JB, Jr. and Krieger, GR, editors. 2nd Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
  • Gibb, H. J., P. S. Lees, et al. (2000). "Clinical findings of irritation among chromium chemical production workers." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 38(2): 127-31.
  • Gibb, H. J., P. S. Lees, et al. (2000). "Lung cancer among workers in chromium chemical production.[see comment]." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 38(2): 115-26.
  • Goulart, M., M. C. Batoreu, et al. (2005). "Lipoperoxidation products and thiol antioxidants in chromium exposed workers." Mutagenesis 20(5): 311-5.
  • Grant, W. M. (1993). "Toxicology of the Eye." 34th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL.: pp 398.
  • Hantson, P., O. Van Caenegem, et al. (2005). "Hexavalent chromium ingestion: biological markers of nephrotoxicity and genotoxicity." Clinical Toxicology: The Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology & European Association of Poisons Centres & Clinical Toxicologists 43(2): 111-2.
  • Hathaway, G. J., N. H. Proctor, et al. (1996). Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY.
  • Hay, E., H. Derazon, et al. (2000). "Suicide by ingestion of a CCA wood preservative." Journal of Emergency Medicine 19(2): 159-63.
  • Hayes, R. B., A. M. Lilienfeld, et al. (1979). "Mortality in chromium chemical production workers: a prospective study." International Journal of Epidemiology 8(4): 365-74.
  • HazDat (2000.). "Hazardous substances database." Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Atlanta, GA.
  • Henderson, R. F., A. H. Rebar, et al. (1979). "Early damage indicators in the lungs. IV. Biochemical and cytologic response of the lung to lavage with metal salts." Toxicology & Applied Pharmacology 51(1): 129-35.
  • Hjollund, N. H., J. P. Bonde, et al. (1995). "Male-mediated risk of spontaneous abortion with reference to stainless steel welding." Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 21(4): 272-6.
  • HSDB (2000). "Hazardous Substances Data Bank." National Library Of Medicine. Bethesda, MD, Thomson Micromedex, CO.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer (1990). "Chromium, Nickel and Welding." IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of Carcinigenic Risks to Human, 49, Lyon.
  • Katz, S. A. and H. Salem (1993). "The toxicology of chromium with respect to its chemical speciation: a review." Journal of Applied Toxicology 13(3): 217-24.
  • Kaufman, D. B., W. DiNicola, et al. (1970). "Acute potassium dichromate poisoning. Treated by peritoneal dialysis." American Journal of Diseases of Children 119(4): 374-6.
  • Kelly, W. F., P. Ackrill, et al. (1982). "Cutaneous absorption of trivalent chromium: tissue levels and treatment by exchange transfusion." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 39(4): 397-400.
  • Kiilunen, M., H. Kivisto, et al. (1983). "Exceptional pharmacokinetics of trivalent chromium during occupational exposure to chromium lignosulfonate dust." Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 9(3): 265-71.
  • Kirschbaum, B. B., F. M. Sprinkel, et al. (1981). "Proximal tubule brush border alterations during the course of chromate nephropathy." Toxicology & Applied Pharmacology 58(1): 19-30.
  • Kolaciski, Z., P. Kostrzewski, et al. (1999). "Acute potassium dichromate poisoning: a toxicokinetic case study." Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 37(6): 785-91.
  • Korallus, U., H. Ehrlicher, et al. (1974b). "Trivalent chromium compounds - results of a study in occupational medicine. Part 2. Disease status analysis." Arb Soz Prev 9: 76-79. (German).
  • Langard, S. (1983). "The carcinogenicity of chromium compounds in man and animals." In: Burrow, C., Ed. Chromium: Metabolism and Toxicity. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, pp. 13-30.
  • Langard S (1980). "A survey of respiratory symptoms and lung function in ferrochromium and ferrosillicon workers." Int Arch Occup Environ Health(46): 1-9.
  • Langard, S. and T. Norseth (1975). "A cohort study of bronchial carcinomas in workers producing chromate pigments." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 32(1): 62-5.
  • Langard, S. and T. Vigander (1983). "Occurrence of lung cancer in workers producing chromium pigments." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 40(1): 71-4.
  • Lewis, R. (2004). "Occupational Exposures: Metals. In: Current Occupational & Environmental Medicine. LaDou, J. editor. 3rd Ed." Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: pp. 439-441.
  • Lieberman, H. (1941). "Chrome ulcerations of the nose and throat." New Engl J Med(225): 132-133.
  • Lindberg, E. and G. Hedenstierna (1983). "Chrome plating: symptoms, findings in the upper airways, and effects on lung function." Archives of Environmental Health 38(6): 367-74.
  • Lindberg, E. and O. Vesterberg (1983). "Monitoring exposure to chromic acid in chromeplating by measuring chromium in urine." Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 9(4): 333-40.
  • Lindberg, E. and O. Vesterberg (1983). "Urinary excretion of proteins in chromeplaters, exchromeplaters and referents." Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 9(6): 505-10.
  • Loubieres, Y., A. de Lassence, et al. (1999). "Acute, fatal, oral chromic acid poisoning." Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 37(3): 333-6.
  • Luippold, R. S., K. A. Mundt, et al. (2003). "Lung cancer mortality among chromate production workers." Occupational & Environmental Medicine 60(6): 451-7.
  • Machle, W. and F. Gregorius (1948). "Cancer of the respiratory system in the United States chromate-producing industry." Public Health Rep 63: 114-127.
  • MacKie, R. M. (1981). "Clinical dermatology." New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Mancuso, R. F. (1951). "Occupational cancer and other health hazards in a chromate plant: a medical appraisal. II. Clinical and toxicologic aspects." Industrial Medicine & Surgery 20(9): 393-407.
  • Mancuso, T. F. (1975). "Consideration of chromium as an industrial carcinogen." In: Hutchinson TC, ed. Preceedings of the international conference on heavy metals in the environment. Toronto, Canada: Toronto Institute for Environmental Studies, : pp 343-356.
  • Medeiros, M. G., A. S. Rodrigues, et al. (2003). "Elevated levels of DNA-protein crosslinks and micronuclei in peripheral lymphocytes of tannery workers exposed to trivalent chromium." Mutagenesis 18(1): 19-24.
  • Meditext - Medical Management (2005). "Chromium Hexavalent Salts." TOMES Information System. Denver, CO: Micromedex, Inc.
  • Meert, K. L., J. Ellis, et al. (1994). "Acute ammonium dichromate poisoning." Annals of Emergency Medicine 24(4): 748-50.
  • Mertz, W. (1969). "Chromium occurrence and function in biological systems." Physiological Reviews 49(2): 163-239.
  • Mertz, W. (1993). "Chromium in human nutrition: a review." J. Nutr(123): 626-633.
  • Michie, C. A., M. Hayhurst, et al. (1991). "Poisoning with a traditional remedy containing potassium dichromate." Human & Experimental Toxicology 10(2): 129-31.
  • Moller, D. R., S. M. Brooks, et al. (1986). "Delayed anaphylactoid reaction in a worker exposed to chromium." Journal of Allergy & Clinical Immunology 77(3): 451-6.
  • NIOSH (2005). "Online pocket guide to chemical hazards. Septemvber 2005." http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/nengapdx.html#c.
  • Norseth, T. (1981). "The carcinogenicity of chromium." Environmental Health Perspectives 40: 121-30.
  • Novey, H. S., M. Habib, et al. (1983). "Asthma and IgE antibodies induced by chromium and nickel salts." Journal of Allergy & Clinical Immunology 72(4): 407-12.
  • OSHA (2006). "OSHA Issues Final Standard on Hexavalent Chromium." National News Release: 06-342-NAT(February 27, 2006).
  • Park, R. M., J. F. Bena, et al. (2004). "Hexavalent chromium and lung cancer in the chromate industry: a quantitative risk assessment." Risk Analysis 24(5): 1099-108.
  • Pascale, L. R., S. S. Waldstein, et al. (1952). Chromium intoxication, with special reference to hepatic injury, Journal of the American Medical Association. 149(15):1385-9, 1952 Aug 9.
  • Petrilli, F. L., G. A. Rossi, et al. (1986). "Metabolic reduction of chromium by alveolar macrophages and its relationships to cigarette smoke." Journal of Clinical Investigation 77(6): 1917-24.
  • PHS (1953). "Health of workers in chromate producing industry: A study." Washington, DC: U.S. Public Health Service. Publication no.192.
  • Polak, L. (1983). "Immunology of chromium. In: Chromium: metabolism and toxicity." Burrows, D, ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,: pp. 51-135.
  • Polak, L., J. L. Turk, et al. (1973). "Studies on contact hypersensitivity to chromium compounds." Progress in Allergy 17: 145-226.
  • Rom, W. N. (2007). "Environmental and Occupational Medicine. 4th Ed. 2007 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."
  • Samitz, M. H. (1970). "Ascorbic acid in the prevention and treatment of toxic effects from chromates." Acta Dermato-Venereologica 50(1): 59-64.
  • Saryan, L. A. and M. Reedy (1988). "Chromium determinations in a case of chromic acid ingestion." Journal of Analytical Toxicology 12(3): 162-4.
  • Schaffer, A. W., A. Pilger, et al. (1999). "Increased blood cobalt and chromium after total hip replacement." Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 37(7): 839-44.
  • Schiffl, H., P. Weidmann, et al. (1982). "Dialysis treatment of acute chromium intoxication and comparative efficacy of peritoneal versus hemodialysis in chromium removal." Mineral & Electrolyte Metabolism 7(1): 28-35.
  • Sharma, B. K., P. C. Singhal, et al. (1978). "Intravascular haemolysis and acute renal failure following potassium dichromate poisoning." Postgraduate Medical Journal 54(632): 414-5.
  • Sheffet, A., I. Thind, et al. (1982). "Cancer mortality in a pigment plant utilizing lead and zinc chromates." Archives of Environmental Health 37(1): 44-52.
  • Sluis-Cremer, G. and R. du Toit (1968). "Pneumoconiosis in chromite miners in South Africa." Br J Ind Med 25: 63-67.
  • Snyder, C. A., I. Udasin, et al. (1996). "Reduced IL-6 levels among individuals in Hudson County, New Jersey, an area contaminated with chromium." Archives of Environmental Health 51(1): 26-8.
  • Spruit, D., F. C. van Neer, et al. (1966). "Penetration rate of Cr (3) and Cr (VI)." Dermatologica 132(2): 179-82.
  • Stift, A., J. Friedl, et al. (2000). "Successful treatment of a patient suffering from severe acute potassium dichromate poisoning with liver transplantation." Transplantation 69(11): 2454-5.
  • Suzuki, Y. (1987). "Anion-exchange high-performance liquid chromatography of water-soluble chromium (VI) and chromium (III) complexes in biological materials." Journal of Chromatography A 415(2): 317-24.
  • Suzuki, Y. and K. Fukuda (1990). "Reduction of hexavalent chromium by ascorbic acid and glutathione with special reference to the rat lung." Archives of Toxicology 64(3): 169-76.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). "Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium.
  • ." National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). "Toxicological Review of Trivalent Chromium.
  • ." National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002). "Common Chemicals Found at Superfund Sites." Available at: http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/chemicals.htm.
  • van Heerden, P. V., I. R. Jenkins, et al. (1994). "Death by tanning--a case of fatal basic chromium sulphate poisoning." Intensive Care Medicine 20(2): 145-7.
  • Wiegand, H. J., H. Ottenwalder, et al. (1984). "Disposition of intratracheally administered chromium(III) and chromium(VI) in rabbits." Toxicology Letters 22(2): 273-6.
  • World Health Organization (1990). "Chromium (Environmental Health Criteria 61) International Programme on Chemical Safety,." Geneva, Switzerland.
  • World Health Organization (1990). "Chromium (Environmental Health Criteria 61) International Programme on Chemical Safety,." Geneva, Switzerlands.
  • Zhitkovich, A., Y. Song, et al. (2001). "Non-oxidative mechanisms are responsible for the induction of mutagenesis by reduction of Cr(VI) with cysteine: role of ternary DNA adducts in Cr(III)-dependent mutagenesis." Biochemistry 40(2): 549-60.

Previous Section

Revised 2008-12-08.