|
![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090506124517im_/http://www.nida.nih.gov/images/spacer.gif)
Glossary
Addiction: A chronic, relapsing disease characterized by compulsive drug-seeking and abuse and by long-lasting chemical changes in the brain.
Cannabinoids: Chemicals that help control mental and physical processes when produced naturally by the body and that produce intoxication and other effects when absorbed from marijuana.
Carcinogen: Any substance that causes cancer.
Dopamine: A brain chemical, classified as a neurotransmitter, found in regions of the brain that regulate movement, emotion, motivation, and pleasure.
Hippocampus: An area of the brain crucial for learning and memory.
Hydrocarbon: Any chemical compound containing only hydrogen and carbon.
Psychoactive: Having a specific effect on the mind.
THC: Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol; the main active ingredient in marijuana, which acts on the brain to produce its effects.
Withdrawal: Symptoms that occur after use of a drug is reduced or stopped.
References
1Johnston, L.D.; O'Malley, P.M.; and Bachman, J.G. Monitoring the Future; National Results on Adolescent Drug Use, Overview and Key Findings, 2004. NIH Pub. No. 05-5506. Bethesda, MD: NIDA, NIH, DHHS, 2005.
2Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. NSDUH Series H-25. DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 04-3964. Rockville, MD: DHHS, 2004.
3ElSohly, M.A. Quarterly report: Potency monitoring project. February 2004, unpublished.
4Tashkin, D.P. Pulmonary complications of smoked substance abuse. West J Med 152:525-530, 1990.
5Sarafian, T.A.; Magallanes, J.A.; Shau, H.; Tashkin, D.; and Roth, M.D. Oxidative stress produced by marijuana smoke. An adverse effect enhanced by cannabinoids. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 20(6):1286-1293, 1999.
6Roth, M.D.; Arora, A.; Barsky, S.H.; Kleerup, E.C.; Simmons, M.; and Tashkin, D.P. Airway inflammation in young marijuana and tobacco smokers. Am. J. Respir Crit Care Med 157(3):928-937, 1998.
7Heishman, S.J.; Arasteh, K; and Stitzer, M.L. Comparative effects of alcohol and marijuana on mood, memory, and performance. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58(1):93-101, 1997.
8Fletcher, J.M.; Page, J.B.; Francis, D.J.; Copeland, K.; Naus, M.J.; Davis, C.M.; Morris, R.; Krauskopf, D.; and Satz, P. Cognitive correlates of chronic cannabis use in Costa Rican men. Archives of General Psychiatry 53:1051-1057, 1996.
9Block, R.I., and Ghoneim, M.M. Effects of chronic marijuana use on human cognition. Psychopharmacology 100(1-2): 219-228, 1993.
10Graham, A.W.; Schultz, T.K.; and Wilford, B.B. (eds.). Principles of Addiction Medicine, 2nd Edition. Chevy Chase, MD: American Society of Addiction Medicine, Inc., 1998.
11Ameri, A. The effects of cannabinoids on the brain. Prog Neurobiol 58(4):315-348, 1999.
12Patrick, G., and Struve, F.A. Reduction of auditory P50 gating response in marihuana users: further supporting data. Clin Electroencephalogr 31(2):88-93, 2000.
13Srivastava, M.D.; Srivastava, B.I.; and Brouhard, B. Delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol alter cytokine production by human immune cells. Immunopharmacology 40(3):179-185, 1998.
14Zhu, L.X.; Sharma, M.; Stolina, S.; Gardner, B.; Roth, M.D.; Tashkin, D.P.; and Dubinett, S.M. Delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol inhibits antitumor immunity by a CB-2 receptor-mediated, cytokine dependent-pathway. J Immunology 165(1):373-380, 2000.
15Gilman, A.G.; Rall, T.W.; Nies, A.S.; and Taylor, P. (eds.). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th Edition. New York: Pergamon Press, 1998.
16Adams, I.B.; and Martin, B.R. Cannabis: Pharmacology and toxicology in animals and humans. Addiction 91:1585-1614, 1996.
17Zhang, Z.-F.; Morgenstern, H.; Spitz, M.R.; Tashkin, D.P.; Yu, G.-P.; Marshall, J.R.; Hsu, T.C; and Schantz, S.P. Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 6:1071-1078, 1999.
18Brook, J.S.; Rosen, Z.; Brook, D.W. The effect of early marijuana use on later anxiety and depressive symptoms. NYS Psychologist January:35-39, 2001.
19Wilson, W.; Mathew, R.; Turkington, T.; Hawk, T.; Coleman, R.E.; and Provenzale, J. Brain morphological changes and early marijuana use: A magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography study. J Addict Dis 19(1):1-22, 2000.
20Brook, J.S.; Balka, E.B.; and Whiteman, M. The risks for late adolescence of early adolescent marijuana use. Am J Public Health 89(10):1549-1554, 1999.
21Community Epidemiology Work Group. Epidemiologic Trends in Drug Abuse, Vol. II, Proceedings of the Community Epidemiology Work Group. December 2003. NIH Pub. No. 04-5365. Bethesda, MD: NIDA, NIH, DHHS, 2004.
22ElSohly, M.A.; Ross, S.A.; Mehmedic, Z.; Arafat, R.; Yi, B.; and Banahan, B. Potency trends of delta-9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980-1997. Journal of Forensic Sciences 45(1):24-30, 2000.
23Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. NSDUH Series H-25. DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 04-3964. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA, 2004.
24Johnston, L.D.; O'Malley, P.M.; and Bachman, J.G. Monitoring the Future: National Results on Adolescent Drug Use, Overview and Key Findings, 2004. NIH Pub. No. 05-5506. Bethesda, MD: NIDA, NIH, DHHS, 2005.
25Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. Emergency Department Trends from DAWN: Final Estimates 1995-2002. DAWN Series D-24; DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 03-3780. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA, 2003.
26National Institute of Justice, Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program. Preliminary Data on Drug Use and Related Matters Among Adult Arrestees & Juvenile Detainees, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2002.
27Herkenham, M.; Lynn, A.; Little, M.D.; Johnson, M.R.; Melvin, L.S.; de Costa, B.R.; and Rice K.C. Cannabinoid receptor localization in the brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA. 87(5):1932-1936, 1990.
28Ohlsson, A.; Lindgren, J.E.; Wahlen, A.; Agurell, S.; Hollister, L.E.; and Gillespie, H.K. Plasma delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations and clinical effects after oral and intravenous administration and smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 28(3):409-416, 1980.
29Foltin, R.W.; Fischman, M.W; Pedroso, J.J.; and Pearlson, G.D. Marijuana and cocaine interactions in humans: cardiovascular consequences. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 28(4):459-464,1987.
30Chen, J.P.; Paredes, W.; Li, J.; Smith, D.; Lowinson, J.; and Gardner, E.L. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol produces naloxone-blockable enhancement of presynaptic basal dopamine efflux in nucleus accumbens of conscious, freely-moving rats as measured by intracerebral microdialysis. Psychopharmacology 102:156-162, 1990.
31French, E.D. Delta-9 THC excites ret VTA dopamine neurons through activation of cannabinoid CB1 but not opioid receptors. Neurosci Lett 226:159-162, 1997.
32Leshner, A.I., and Koob, G.F. Drugs of abuse and the brain. Proc Assoc Amer Physicians 111(2):99-108, 1999.
33Pope, H.G., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. The residual cognitive effects of heavy marijuana use in college students. JAMA 275(7):521-527, 1996.
34Mason, A.P., and McBay, A.J. Ethanol, marijuana, and other drug use in 600 drivers killed in single-vehicle crashes in North Carolina, 1978-1981. J Forensic Sci 29(4):987-1026, 1984.
35Williams, A.F.; Peat, M.A.; Crouch, D.J.; Wells, J.K.; and Finkle, B.S. Drugs in fatally injured young male drivers. Public Health Report 100(1):19-25, 1985.
36Cimbura, G.; Lucas, D.M.; Bennett, R.C.; and Donelson, A.C. Incidence and toxicological aspects of cannabis and ethanol detected in 1,394 fatally injured drivers and pedestrians in Ontario (1982-1984). J Forensic Sci 35(5):1035-1041, 1990.
37National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Notes. Marijuana and alcohol combined severely impede driving performance. Annals of Emergency Medicine 35(4):398-399, 2000.
38Ford, D.E.; Vu, H.T.; and Anthony, J.C. Marijuana use and cessation of tobacco smoking in adults from a community sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 67:243-248, 2002.
39Polen, M.R; Sidney, S.; Tekawa, I.S.; Sadler. M.; and Friedman, G.D. Health care use by frequent marijuana smokers who do not smoke tobacco. West J Med 158:596-601, 1993.
40Sridhar, K.S.; Raub, W.A.; Weatherby, N.L., Jr.; Metsch, L.R.; Surratt, H.L.; Inciardi, J.A.; Duncan, R.C.; Anwyl, R.S.; and McCoy, C.B. Possible role of marijuana smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at a young age. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 26(3):285-288, 1994.
41Hoffman, D.; Brunnemann, K.D.; Gori, G.B.; and Wynder, E.E.L. On the carcinogenicity of marijuana smoke. In: V.C. Runeckles, ed., Recent Advances in Phytochemistry. New York: Plenum, 1975.
42Cohen, S. Adverse effects of marijuana: Selected issues. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 362:119-124, 1981.
43Klein, T.W.; Newton, C.; and Friedman, H. Microbial infections, immunomodulation, and drugs of abuse. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003, April 16 (2):209-19.
44Mittleman, M.A.; Lewis, R.A.; Maclure, M.; Sherwood, J.B.; and Muller, J.E. Triggering myocardial infarction by marijuana. Circulation 103:2805-2809, 2001.
45Lynskey, M.; and Hall, W. The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: A review. Addiction 95(11):1621-1630, 2000.
46Kandel, D.B., and Davies, M. High school students who use crack and other drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53(1):71-80, 1996.
47Rob, M.; Reynolds, I.; and Finlayson, P.F. Adolescent marijuana use: Risk factors and implications. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 24(1):45-56, 1990.
48Zwerling, C.; Ryan, J.; and Orav, E.J. The efficacy of preemployment drug screening for marijuana and cocaine in predicting employment outcome. JAMA; 264 (20): 2639-43, 1990.
49Budney, A.J.; Moore, B.A.; Vandrey, R.G.; and Hughes, J.R. The time course and significance of cannabis withdrawal. J Abnorm Psychol 112(3):393-402, 2003.
50Brook, J.S.; Cohen, P.; and Brook, D.W. Longitudinal study of co-occurring psychiatric disorders and substance use. J Acad Child and Adolescent Psych 37(3):322-330, 1998.
51Pope, H.G.; Gruber, A.J.; Hudson, J.I.; Huestis, M.A.; and Yurgelun-Todd. D. Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58(10):909-915, 2001.
52Scheier, L.M., and Botvin, G.J. Effects of early adolescent drug use on cognitive efficacy in early-late adolescence: A developmental structural model. Journal of Substance Abuse 7(4):397-404, 1996.
53Gruber, A.J.; Pope, H.G.; Hudson, J.I.; and Yurgelun-Todd, D. Attributes of long-term heavy cannabis users: a case-control study. Psychological Medicine 33:1415-1422, 2003.
54Lester, B.M., and Dreher, M. Effects of marijuana use during pregnancy on newborn crying. Child Development 60(23/24):764-771, 1989.
55Fried, P.A. The Ottawa prenatal prospective study (OPPS): Methodological issues and findings. It's easy to throw the baby out with the bath water. Life Sciences 56:2159-2168, 1995.
56Fried, P.A.; and Smith, A.M. A literature review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure: An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 23(1): 1-11, 2001.
57Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. NSDUH Series H-25. DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 04-3964. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA, 2004.
58Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): 1992-2002, National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services. DASIS Series: S-23, DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 04-3965. Rockville, MD: DHHS, 2004.
59Haney, M.; Ward, A.S.; Comer, S.D.; Foltin, R.W.; and Fischman, M.W. Abstinence symptoms following smoked marijuana in humans. Psychopharmacology 141:395-404, 1999.
60Budney, A.J.; Hughes, J.R.; Moore, B.A.; and Novy, P.L. Marijuana abstinence effects in marijuana smokers maintained in their home environment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:917-924, 2001.
61Kouri, E.M.; Pope, H.G.; and Lukas, S.E. Changes in aggressive behavior during withdrawal from long-term marijuana use. Psychopharmacology 143:302-308, 1999.
62Lynskey, M.T.; Heath, A.C.; Bucholz, K.K.; Slutske, W.S.; Madden, P.A.F.; Nelson, E.C.; Statham, D.J.; and Martin, N.G. Escalation of drug use in early-onset cannabis users vs. co-twin controls. JAMA 289(4):427-433, 2003.
63Steinberg, K.L.; Roffman, R.A.; Carroll, K.M.; Kabela, E.; Kadden, R.; Miller, M.; and Duresky, D. The Marijuana Treatment Project Research Group. Tailoring cannabis dependence treatment for a diverse population. Addiction 97(Suppl 1):135-142, 2002.
64Stephens, R.S.; Roffman R.A.; and Curtin, L. Comparison of extended versus brief treatments for marijuana use. J Consult Clin Psychol 68(5):898-908, 2000.
65Budney, A.J.; Higgins, S.T.; Radonovich, K.J.; and Novy PL. Adding voucher-based incentives to coping skills and motivational enhancement improves outcomes during treatment for marijuana dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol 68(6):1051-1061, 2000.
66Heyser, C.J.; Hampson, R.E.; and Deadwyler, S.A. Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on delayed match to sample performance in rats: Alterations in short-term memory associated with changes in task-specific firing of hippocampal cells. Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics 264(1):294-307, 1993.
67Landfield, P.W.; Cadwallader, L.B.; and Vinsant, S. Quantitative changes in hippocampal structure following long exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: Possible mediation of glucocorticoid systems. Brain Res 443(1-2):47-62, 1988.
68Eldridge, J.C.; Murphy, L.L.; and Landfield, P.W. Cannabinoids and the hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor: recent findings and possible significance. Steroids 56:226-230, 1991.
69Landfield, P.W.; Waymire, J.C.; and Lynch, G. Hippocampal aging and adrenocorticoids: quantitative correlations. Science 202:1098-1101, 1978.
70Walker, M.J.; Huang, S.M.; Strangman, N.M.; Tsou, K.; and Sanudo-Pena, M.C. Pain modulation by the release of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96(21):12198-12203, 1999.
71Wenger, T.; Toth, B.E.; Juaneda, C.; Leonardelli, J.; and Tramu, G. The effects of cannabinoids on the regulation of reproduction. Life Sci 65(6-7):695-701, 1999.
72Maldonado, R.; and Rodríguez de Fonseca, F. Cannabinoid addiction: Behavioral models and neural correlates. J Neuroscience 22(9):3326-3331, 2002.
73Breivogel, C.S.; Scates, S.M.; Beletskaya, I.O.; Lowery, O.B.; Aceto, M.D.; and Martin, B.R. The effects of delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol physical dependence on brain cannabinoid receptors. Euro J Pharmacology 459:139-150, 2003.
74Piomelli, D.; Giuffrida, A.; Calignano, A.; and Rodriguez de Fonseca, F. The endocannabinoid system as a target for therapeutic drugs. TIPS 21:218-224, 2000.
75Fried, P.A.; and Makin, J.E. Neonatal behavioural correlates of prenatal exposure to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol in a low risk population. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 9(1):1-7, 1987
|
|
|