Abstract
![Sunflowers](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/sunflowers.jpg)
Sunflowers. Photo courtesy of USDA
ARS. |
Biodiesel is a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel. This
publication surveys many dimensions of biodiesel production and
use. Net energy balance, sustainable bioenergy crops, scale of production,
consumer access, and the economics of biodiesel are all critical
when discussing a sustainable energy future for this country. Above
all, increased fuel efficiency and increased diesel engine use in
the United States will be needed in order for biodiesel to become
a meaningful part of our energy future.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Biodiesel offers well-publicized environmental, economic, and national
security benefits. Biodiesel combustion emits fewer regulated and
non-regulated pollutants than petrodiesel (with the possible exception
of nitrogen oxides). Further, its lubricity extends engine life,
and it is a biodegradable product.
Biodiesel could benefit farmers and rural communities, depending
on ownership of production facilities and the mix and marketability
of useful co-products. And biodiesel could reduce dependence on
foreign oil and associated fluctuations in availability and price.
This publication addresses the sustainability dimensions of biodiesel
production and use. These dimensions include the net energy balance
of biodiesel relative to other fuels and the link between raising
bioenergy crops and sustainable, soil-building practices. Other
considerations include the qualities of different biodiesel feedstocks
and the economics of production and use. This publication also raises
other issues, such as access, scale and ownership of production,
co-product development, and the extent to which biodiesel and other
biofuels can effectively replace petroleum fuels.
All dimensions of biodiesel production and use are fundamentally
intertwined with each other and with the topic of environmental
sustainablility. To isolate and address any single aspect of biodiesel
invites reference to others.
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Background and Context
The Bigger Picture
The United States consumes transportation fuels at an extremely
high rate per capita compared to other industrialized countries.
In 2001, for example, 522 gallons of petroleum transportation fuels
were expended for every man, woman, and child in this country—compared
to 421 gallons per capita in Canada, 211 gallons in Germany, and
196 gallons in Japan. (1)
Two major policy and practical changes must occur for biodiesel
to have a real impact on this country’s energy future:
- A national commitment to energy efficiency in every facet of
American life. This may include community redesign, broad changes
in food production and delivery systems, greater commitment to
mass transit, and increased mileage efficiency for vehicles.
- A massive conversion from gasoline-powered autos and light trucks
to cleaner-burning diesel autos. This sort of change is not without
precedent. U.S. farmers switched from gasoline to diesel powered
farm equipment in the late 1970s and ’80s—an important
factor in agriculture’s big energy use reduction since the
1970s. Major automakers (General Motors, Toyota, Ford, and Daimler-Chrysler)
plan to produce more diesel-powered cars for the U.S. market in
the years ahead.
Most farmers and ranchers operate against tight
margins. Capturing energy efficiencies and making the best use
of biofuels may be nearly impossible without retooling current
food production and distribution systems. For example, when food
is shipped over shorter distances, energy consumption and freight
costs are reduced. Creating local markets for locally grown foods
can accomplish this. Rotating nitrogen-producing or phosphorous-availing
crops with cash crops can save energy on the farm. Changing tillage
methods or technologies, and properly scaling equipment to the
farm operation can also save energy. These changes may be important
precursors to the cost-effective production of biodiesel.
Biodiesel as a Transportation Fuel
Simply put, biodiesel is the product of mixing vegetable oil or
animal fat with alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol) and a catalyst,
usually lye. Glycerin is the main by-product.
Biodiesel performs very similarly to low-sulfur petroleum-based
diesel in terms of power, torque, and fuel efficiency, and does
not require major engine modifi cations. Joshua Tickell, the author
of several books on biodiesel, claims it contains about 12 percent
less energy than petrodiesel (biodiesel = 37 megajoules per kilogram
vs. petrodiesel = 42 megajoules per kilogram). This is partially
offset by a seven percent average increase in combustion efficiency
of biodiesel. No overall perceived decrease in performance is noted
for most vehicles using biodiesel, even though, on average, there
is five percent less torque, power, and fuel efficiency. (2)
Biodiesel is considered a safer fuel than petrodiesel. Biodiesel
has a high flashpoint of over 300ºF (150ºC), compared
to 125ºF (52ºC) for petrodiesel. The flashpoint is the
temperature at which a fuel’s vapor can be ignited. Biodiesel
also has a relatively high boiling point and is generally considered
safer to handle.
Modern diesel fuels are injected into a highly compressed chamber
where combustion occurs without a spark plug. Biodiesel reacts more
rapidly in the chamber with less combustion delay than most petrodiesel
fuels and is, therefore, assigned a higher cetane number—the
measure of ignition quality. Many of biodiesel’s emission
benefits stem from its high ignition quality. (3)
Biodiesel can be produced from virtually any kind of vegetable
oil—new or used. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that
about 26.7 million gallons of biodiesel were sold in 2003. Total
U.S. diesel consumption that year was more than 39.9 billion gallons.
(4)
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Qualities and Quantities of Biodiesel and Biodiesel Feedstocks
At cold temperatures, diesel fuels form wax crystals that cloud
the product and affect fuel performance. This temperature threshold
is called the cloud point and occurs at 20º F (-7ºC)
for most commonly used grades of petrodiesel. Biodiesel fuels generally
have a cloud point between 25 and 60ºF (4 to 16ºC), depending
on the amount of free fatty acids in the product. Waste vegetable
oil contains more free fatty acids (FFAs) than virgin oils. Free
fatty acids raise the cloud point of the fuel, so biodiesel made
from used cooking oil or animal fat will cloud at higher temperatures
than biodiesel made from new vegetable oil feedstock.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) recommended
in 1996 that biodiesel have a cloud point of at most 38º F.
The cloud point can be lowered with winterizing additives formulated
for diesel fuels. Biodiesel blends such as B20 (20 percent biodiesel/80
percent petrodiesel) typically require no action beyond that necessary
for ordinary petrodiesel. (5)
The United States produces approximately 3 to 5 billion gallons
of waste vegetable oil every year in restaurants. (7,
8) Much of this product goes to landfills;
some is used in the soap and cosmetics industry. Waste cooking oil
could contribute only a small percentage of total U.S. diesel demand.
Converting this waste into a relatively low-cost resource, however,
reduces the environmental degradation and costs of disposal in landfills.
The quantity of biodiesel produced from crops is also limited. If
rapeseed were grown on every acre of cropland available in the United
States in 2002, an estimated 36.3 billion gallons of oil could be
produced—very close to current national demand. (6)
But of course it is not practical to use all available farmland
to produce transportation fuels. Moreover, very serious ethical
issues are raised by sacrificing croplands for vehicle fuel in a
world where people are hungry and populations are growing. (For
a discussion of the “food vs. fuel” controversy, see
the Web site Journey
to Forever.)
Charles L. Peterson, PhD., of the University of Idaho, notes that
37 million acres of cropland were reported idle in 2002. That acreage
might meet 11 percent of U.S. diesel demand with 3.7 billion gallons
of vegetable oil. Practical use of idle land would be less than
the 37 million acres, though, because much of the acreage is highly
erodible, dry, and has poor soils.
The Chemistry of Biodiesel
Transesterification is the term used to describe
the transformation of vegetable
oil into biodiesel. Vegetable oil is made up of three esters
attached to a glycerin molecule—a triglyceride. An ester
is a hydrocarbon chain available to bond with another molecule.
During transesterification, the esters in vegetable oil are
separated from the glycerin molecule, resulting in the byproduct
glycerin. The esters then attach to alcohol molecules (either
methanol or ethanol) to form biodiesel. In order to prompt
the esters to break from the glycerin and bond with the alcohol,
a catalyst (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) must
be used. The glycerin byproduct can be further processed to
make soap.
Free fatty acids are present in vegetable oil when it has
been used in cooking. When free fatty acids are present, as
in waste vegetable oil, more base catalyst is required to
neutralize the FFAs, which renders the biodiesel fit for use.
(Adapted from From the Fryer to the Fuel Tank
by Joshua Tickell) |
![Soybeans](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/soybeans2.jpg)
Soybeans. Photo courtesy of USDA
ARS. |
Ninety percent of the biodiesel virgin oil feedstock in the United
States in 2001 was from soybeans. There are many reasons why soybean
draws most of the market share as a biodiesel feedstock. Soy is
a versatile, nitrogen-fixing crop that yields oil and food for humans
and livestock. Soybean meal is of higher market value than soy oil.
Consequently, soy oil is a low-priced byproduct available in relatively
large volumes. Currently, it is a cheaper virgin feedstock than
other oilseeds. The processing and distribution infrastructure for
soybeans is already in place, with more capacity being added as
more biodiesel production facilities come online.
However, the list of the top thirty plant species with the highest
oil yield per acre for biodiesel doesn’t even include soybeans.
Of the more common commodity-style crops that can be raised for
biofuels in this country, soy ranks as only the eighth best oil-yielding
crop.
This may be good news for farmers who don’t or can’t
grow soybeans on their farms. Rapeseed (brassica napus)
rates as the highest yielding oil source in this country at 122
gallons per acre. Sunflower has the third best yield on this shorter
U.S. list at 98 gallons per acre, followed by safflower (80 gallons
per acre) at fourth, and mustard, rated seventh (59 gallons per
acre). Table 1 shows the oil yields in gallons
per acre. (One gallon of oil = 7.3 pounds.) (4)
Please keep in mind as you examine this table that the yields will
vary in different agroclimatic zones.
Table
1: OIL PRODUCING CROPS
Adapted from Joshua Tickell, From the Fryer to the Fuel
Tank: The Complete Guide to Using Vegetable Oil as an Alternative
Fuel. 3rd Ed. 2000. |
Plant |
Latin Name |
Gal Oil/ Acre |
Plant |
Latin Name |
Gal Oil/ Acre |
Oil Palm |
Elaeis guineensis |
610 |
Rice |
Oriza sativa L. |
85 |
Macauba Palm |
Acrocomia aculeata |
461 |
Buffalo Gourd |
Cucurbita foetidissima |
81 |
Pequi |
Caryocar brasiliense |
383 |
Safflower |
Carthamus tinctorius |
80 |
Buriti Palm |
Mauritia flexuosa |
335 |
Crambe |
Crambe abyssinica |
72 |
Oiticia |
Licania rigida |
307 |
Sesame |
Sesamum indicum |
71 |
Coconut |
Cocos nucifera |
276 |
Camelina |
Camelina sativa |
60 |
Avocado |
Persea americana |
270 |
Mustard |
Brassica alba |
59 |
Brazil Nut |
Bertholletia excelsa |
245 |
Coriander |
Coriandrum sativum |
55 |
Macadamia Nut |
Macadamia terniflora |
230 |
Pumpkin Seed |
Cucurbita pepo |
55 |
Jatropa |
Jatropha curcas |
194 |
Euphorbia |
Euphorbia lagascae |
54 |
Babassu Palm |
Orbignya martiana |
188 |
Hazelnut |
Corylus avellana |
49 |
Jojoba |
Simmondsia chinensis |
186 |
Linseed |
Linum usitatissimum |
49 |
Pecan |
Carya illinoensis |
183 |
Coffee |
Coffea arabica |
47 |
Bacuri |
Platonia insignis |
146 |
Soybean |
Glycine max |
46 |
Castor Bean |
Ricinus communis |
145 |
Hemp |
Cannabis sativa |
37 |
Gopher Plant |
Euphorbia lathyris |
137 |
Cotton |
Gossypium hirsutum |
33 |
Piassava |
Attalea funifera |
136 |
Calendula |
Calendula officinalis |
31 |
Olive Tree |
Olea europaea |
124 |
Kenaf |
Hibiscus cannabinus L. |
28 |
Rapeseed |
Brassica napus |
122 |
Rubber Seed |
Hevea brasiliensis |
26 |
Opium Poppy |
Papaver somniferum |
119 |
Lupine |
Lupinus albus |
24 |
Peanut |
Ariachis hypogaea |
109 |
Palm |
Erythea salvadorensis |
23 |
Cocoa |
Theobroma cacao |
105 |
Oat |
Avena sativa |
22 |
Sunflower |
Helianthus annuus |
98 |
Cashew Nut |
Anacardium occidentale |
18 |
Tung Oil Tree |
Aleurites fordii |
96 |
Corn |
Zea mays |
18 |
Rotational Benefits of Oilseed Crops Other than Soybeans
Higher-yielding oil crops like safflower, mustards, and sunflower
have significant rotational benefits. For example, deep safflower
and sunflower roots help break up hardpan and improve soil tilth.
Canola and rapeseed make soil nutrients available for succeeding
years’ crops. Oil-yielding brassicas such as mustards, canola,
and rapeseed help reduce soil-borne diseases and pathogens. Table
2 shows the rotational benefits of certain oilseed crops.
Table
2: ROTATIONAL BENEFITS OF OILSEED CROPS
See References section
for sources. |
Oil Seed Crop |
Yield (Gal
Oil/ Acre) |
Rotational Benefits |
Management
Practices |
Rapeseed/Canola |
122 |
Both are cool season crops. Attract hoverflies
whose larvae preyon aphids. Has value as green manure because
it makes phosphorus available for subsequent year’s
crops and initial research shows it inhibits growth of small
weed seeds. Can serve as a nutrient catch crop. Provides weed
control at high seeding rates. Canola is edible version of
rapeseed, winter and spring varieties are available. Winter
varieties are not as winter hardy as winter small grains (wheat,
barley). Tap root breaks up hardpan. Good rotation crop, breaking
cycles of weeds, disease and insect pests. Mellows soil. |
Sclerotinia-susceptible.
Should not be grown within five years of sunflower. |
Peanut |
109 |
Peanuts are often grown in rotation with
other crops to replace soil nitrogen and decrease the need
for synthetic fertilizers. |
|
Sunflower |
98 |
Catch crop for nutrients, breaks up hardpan
and compacted soil, may reduce fusarium when used in rotation
with grain crops, can serve as a windbreak. Row-cropping provides
opportunity for mechanical weed control during growing season. |
|
Safflower |
80 |
Breaks up hardpan and compacted soil with
its deep roots. |
|
Crambe |
72 |
Cool season crop—similar to canola,
but more disease resistant and is tolerant of flea beetle
damage. |
|
Camelina |
60 |
Cool season crop—a crucifer like canola,
rape, mustard, and crambe. Has allelopathic effects and it
is somewhat drought resistant. It fairly weed competitive
when winter or very early spring seeded. |
|
Mustard |
59 |
Primarily a cool season crop. Nutrient catch
crop. Has nematicidal properties that reduce soil-borne pathogens.
Can smother weeds and has allelopathic effects on weeds. |
Sclerotinia-susceptible.
Should not be grown within five years of sunflower. |
Flaxseed/Linseed |
49 |
A good crop for interseeding or to sow following
a competitive crop onto clean field. Not weed competitive
on its own. It is a light feeder. |
|
Soy |
46 |
Fixes nitrogen, although most of the nitrogen
is removed with the bean harvest. |
Poor choice for controlling erosion or building
organic matter levels. |
Lupine |
24 |
Moderate nitrogen fixer, takes up soil phosphorus—making
it available for subsequent crops, reduces erosion and crop
disease, deep taproots can open and aerate soil. |
|
Oat |
22 |
Erosion control, enhances soil life, and
adds organic matter. Serves as a catch crop and a nurse crop,
can be used for weed control in rotations, crop residue reduces
nitrogen leaching. |
|
State agricultural experiment stations, Extension Service or the
Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) may have information
on specific oilseed crops that can be raised in certain locales
and the best rotations for soil-building and pest suppression benefits.
Sustainable agriculture groups are often helpful, since they may
have farmer members who have experience raising brassicas or other
oilseed crops in rotation. Rotational benefits are also outlined
in other sources listed in the References
section of this publication.
![Canola](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/canola_ars.jpg)
Canola.
Photo courtesy of USDA ARS.
|
The Energy Balance of Biodiesel Compared to Ethanol and
Petroleum Diesel
A debate within scientific and policy circles centers on the net
energy balance of various ethanol and biodiesel feedstocks. The
energy balance is “a comparison of the energy stored in a
fuel to the energy required to grow, process and distribute that
fuel.” (7) In this publication we
use the most commonly quoted energy balance statistics available
at press time.
Biodiesel provides a positive energy balance, according to most
sources: for every unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel, 2.5
to 3.2 units of energy are gained. Evidence suggests virgin oil
from sources other than soy may have an even higher energy content.
Overall, biodiesel is said to have the highest energy yield of any
liquid fuel. According to the Minnesota Department of Agriculture
Web site (8):
- Biodiesel provides an energy yield of 3.2 (soybean oil).
- Bioethanol provides an energy yield of 1.34.
- Petrodiesel provides an energy yield of .843.
- Petro gasoline provides an energy yield of .805.
Economics of Biodiesel Production and Use
Many studies have been conducted on the potential macroeconomic
benefits of large scale biodiesel production in various locations
around the country. These studies also give some indication of the
potential economic impacts across the nation. According to the Hampel
Oil Distributors’ Biodiesel Fact Sheet (9),
three major economic benefits would accrue to a state (in this case,
Iowa) from the increased use of biodiesel:
- Biodiesel expands demand for soybean oil, which raises the
price processors pay for soybeans.
- Soybean farmers near the biodiesel plant receive slightly higher
prices for soybeans.
- The presence of a facility that creates energy from soybeans
adds value to the state’s industrial and income base.
The University of Missouri estimates that 100 million gallons of
biodiesel production could generate an approximate $8.34 million
increase in personal income and more than 6,000 temporary or permanent
jobs in a metropolitan region. (10) Another
study predicts a 100 million-gallon biofuels plant could generate
a one-time economic boost of $250 to $359 million during the construction
phase.
Additionally, the local economic base is projected to expand by
$250 million through annual direct spending of $140 million. More
than 100 new full-time jobs would be created at the plant and more
than 1,500 indirect jobs in the state, and annual community household
income in the area would increase by $50 million.
A 1998 USDA economic study estimated that a sustained national
market for 100 million gallons of biodiesel could increase the value
of the U.S. soybean crop by more than $250 million and increase
soybean oil prices by 14 percent. A 70 million gallon demand would
add 10 to 18 cents per bushel to the price of soybeans. (11)
The cost of the vegetable oil feedstock is the single largest factor
in biodiesel production costs. In 2004, wholesale biodiesel costs
ranged between $1.25 and $2.50 per gallon, before taxes, depending
on transportation, distribution, and feedstock costs.
Commercially produced biodiesel has to meet the ASTM D-6751 quality
standard. Some biodiesel users and “home brewers” are
willing to accept tradeoffs in small-scale production. Waste vegetable
oil can be used to make biodiesel, and is often available free or
at low cost compared to virgin feedstocks.
Straight vegetable oil (SVO) can also be used as a fuel, but there
are risks. It is much more viscous than either petrodiesel or biodiesel
and must be filtered to five microns and heated to at least 140°F
before use in diesel engines. It doesn’t burn the same in
the engine and many studies have found that it can cause lacquering
and other kinds of engine damage.
If you are tempted to try SVO, a professional engine conversion
is strongly recommended. This conversion often includes installing
a second fuel tank, allowing you to start and shut down on biodiesel
or petrodiesel. The basic idea is to use only preheated SVO and
to clear your fuel lines before shutting down the vehicle.
![Mustard](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/rape.jpg)
Mustard. Photo courtesy of USDA
ARS. |
The economics of producing and using biodiesel on a small scale
are outlined in ATTRA’s publication Biodiesel
- a Primer (12) and in other
sources, such as Maria “Mark” Alovert’s excellent
Biodiesel Homebrew Guide. (13)
The examples outlined in Biodiesel - a Primer demonstrate
that a five gallon batch of biodiesel yields a much different economy
of scale than does a 250-gallon run.
The “Bulk Commodity Treadmill”
Large plots of undifferentiated plant species grown on the same
ground year after year or in very short rotations are known as monocultures.
The negative environmental aspects of monocultures are well researched
and proven. The same holds true for any oilseed crop considered
for biodiesel. Monoculture crop production can deplete the soil
of organic matter and essential nutrients, which can result in soil
compaction, erosion, or downstream nutrient loading. Monocultures
also create more insect, pathogen, and weed management challenges.
Monocultures exhibit an economic dimension as well—at what
point does any cash crop become an undifferentiated bulk commodity
raised in such high volumes that it doesn’t have enough value
for growers to turn a profit? Many farmers and ranchers are raising
more diverse, higher-value food crops and animals because they perceive
that subsidized, bulk commodity production is economically unsustainable
for them. This is a factor to consider in producing biofuel crops
as well.
Ownership and Design of Biodiesel Production
Ownership and design of biodiesel production is also related to
feedstock price and a fair rate of return to farmers. Farmer ownership
of at least part of the production process beyond the farm gate
keeps more dollars in farmers’ pockets and in the local community.
This has been proven time and again, most recently in the Midwest
with ethanol production. According to David Morris of the Institute
for Local Self-Reliance, “If farmers own the ethanol plants;
that is, if they own a share of the manufacturing facility that
converts their raw material into a finished product, they can receive
dividends of 20-30 cents per gallon.” (14)
Another dimension related to farmers making a reasonable profit
is the value of biodiesel co-products. For example, entrepreneurs
and scientists in Montana considering biodiesel development in that
state discovered that a biodiesel plant could not pay farmers a
sustained fair price for their bioenergy crops (canola or industrial
rape) unless the co-products could be manufactured and sold.
This means that a biorefinery is probably the most economically
sustainable means of larger-scale biodiesel production. Within this
production design or paradigm, the crude vegetable oil pressed from
bioenergy crops is the base for all sorts of products, ranging from
relatively lower value biodiesel to biolubricants for motors. The
crop pressings have potential value as biopesticides and animal
feed. Table 3 shows some of the possible co-products
of biodiesel. (15)
Table
3: VALUE ADDED TREE
Adopted from Paul Miller's Value Added Tree in A Biobased
Vision for Montana and the Pacific Northwest. 2003.
![Miller's table](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/millers_table.jpg) |
Biorefineries are not a new concept. They are, in fact, similar
to petroleum refineries. However, their process complexities, capitalization,
and permitting requirements go far beyond making biodiesel in the
garage or farm shop.
Scale of Biodiesel Production
In the Kansas-based Land Institute's Sunshine Farm project, researchers
concluded that farm-scale biodiesel production might not be cost
effective for farmers to pursue individually, but that some level
of community-scale biodiesel production with standards satisfactory
to engine manufacturers would be more feasible. (16)
Individuals would each have to spend too much energy and resources
to produce biodiesel on a farm. Small community-scale biodiesel
production would likely produce more biodiesel for less effort.
That scale of production was not precisely defined in the Land Institute
report. Far more research and documented practical experience in
biodiesel production in dispersed, near-farm, and community-level
settings is needed.
Larger scale biodiesel production is progressing rather quickly.
In July 2005, 35 biodiesel production plants were online in the
United States. Many new plants have begun production, with an expected
increase in production to more than 100 million gallons by the end
of 2005. The new plants range in initial production capacity from
about 5 million gallons per year (MGY) at a plant in Indiana to
a proposed 30 MGY plant in Iowa. (17,
18) Archer Daniels-Midland has plans
for a 50 MGY plant in North Dakota (using canola), and Cargill plans
a 37.5 MGY plant in Iowa. Scale is a strong determinant of who can
afford to own all or part of a plant or biorefinery, bear the risks,
and accrue the benefits of that ownership. For example, the 5 MGY
Indiana plant will cost approximately $10 million. The new plant
is expected to expand capacity to 30 MGY over time. A planned 20
MGY plant in Wisconsin is expected cost 10 to 15 million dollars.
(19)
Access to Biodiesel
![Biodiesel bus](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090305061152im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/biodiesel_sustainable/biodiesel_bus.jpg)
Photo courtesy of USDA ARS. |
Biodiesel is currently available in most states that produce oilseed
crops, and many farmers use biodiesel as a means of fostering production
and raising public awareness. Nonetheless, farmers’ access
to biodiesel for farm use is another dimension that requires consideration
and raises potential for a sad irony. Farmers who raise crops for
biodiesel in isolated rural areas may not have ready access to the
finished fuel. Unless farmers intend to make biodiesel on location,
or a larger scale local biodiesel production facility is online,
many farmers find they cannot use the fuel they are working to create.
On its Web site, the National Biodiesel Board lists about 50 suppliers
to contact to have biodiesel shipped across the U.S. Almost every
state has at least one pump station that offers some blend of biodiesel,
though not necessarily within practical distance for most potential
customers. The site posts a map of retail outlets for biodiesel
across the country. The board recommends asking regional fuel distributors
to get more biodiesel supplied locally. (20)
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Conclusion
Resources are available to help farmers and consumers determine
the best means to manage the advantages biodiesel has to offer.
Biodiesel has “tailpipe benefits” and holds great promise
as a sustainable energy source, if several sustainability principles
are treated seriously:
- Capture as much energy efficiency as possible on and off the
farm, to reduce transportation fuel demand, reduce production
costs, and improve energy balance.
- Convert as much waste as possible into a useable resource, such
as converting waste vegetable oil into fuel.
- Put oil-producing crops and high-quality agricultural lands
to their highest and most sustainable use, which will often be
food production instead of energy production.
- Raise bioenergy crops that enhance soil and water resources.
- Create a range of diverse opportunities for biodiesel production
in terms of the scale, design, and ownership so farmers and rural
communities can share in the economic benefits.
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Related ATTRA Publications
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References
- Anon. 2004. Transportation:
Motor Gasoline Consumption per Capita and Diesel Oil Consumption
per Capita, 2001. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Downloaded
November 2005. http://earthtrends.wri.org
- Tickell, Joshua. 2000.
From the Fryer to the Fuel Tank: The Complete Guide to Using Vegetable
Oil as an Alternative Fuel. 3rd Edition. Tickell Energy Consulting,
Tallahassee, FL. 162 p.
- Anon. No date. Biodiesel.
Free-definition. Downloaded August, 2005. www.freedefinition.com/Biodiesel.html
- Anon. 2004. Estimated
Consumption of Vehicle Fuels in the United States, 1995-2004;
Table 10. USDOE. Downloaded August 2005. www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/archive/datatables/afvtable10_03.xls
- (2, p.31-32)
- Peterson, Charles
L. No date. Potential Productionof Biodiesel. University of Idaho.
Downloaded August 2005. www.uidaho.edu/bioenergy/Publications.htm
- (2, p.36)
- Groschen, Ralph. No
date. Energy Balance/Life Cycle Inventory for Ethanol, Biodiesel
and Petroleum Fuels. Minnesota Department of Agriculture. Downloaded
September 2005. www.mda.state.mn.us/cgi-bin/MsmFind.exe?query=biodiesel+energy+yield
- Anon. No date. Hampel
Oil Distributors’ Biodiesel Fact Sheet. Downloaded August
2005.
www.hampeloil.com/powerdiesel/fuelfact.html
- Anon. No date. Kansas
City Transportation Authority Tallow Based Biodiesel Test. Prepared
by Marc IV Consulting, Inc. and Kansas State University. 39 p.
- Sheehan J. et al.;
1998. Lifecycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for
Use in an Urban Bus. National Renewable Energy Laboratory for
the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fuels Development and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of Energy. Golden, CO.
May. 4 p.
- Ryan, David. 2004.
Biodiesel -
a Primer. ATTRA Publication. National Center for Appropriate
Technology, Butte, MT. 14 p.
- Alovert, Maria “Mark.”
2004. Biodiesel Homebrew Guide. Version 9. May 8. 85 p.
- Morris, David. 2005.
West Wing’s Ethanol Problem. Alternet. February. Downloaded
August 2005. www.alternet.org/envirohealth/21147
- Miller, Paul. 2003.
Value-Added Tree in A Biobased Vision for Montana and the Pacific
Northwest. Presentation at the Greening Under the Big Sky conference.
Big Sky, MT. June.
- Bender, Marty. 2001.
Energy in Agriculture and Society: Insights from the Sunshine
Farm. March 28. 10 p. Downloaded August 2005.
www.landinstitute.org/vnews/display.v/ART/2001/03/28/3accb0712
- Higgins, Jenna (contact).
2005. Biodiesel Plants Join Growing Number of Production Facilities.
National Biodiesel Board News Release. July 1. 2 p.
- Wharton, Marc. 2005.
First Biodiesel Plant a Reality in Indiana. Evergreen Renewables.
December 9. 2 p. www.biodiesel.org/resources/memberreleases
- Richmond, Todd. 2005.
Company Ready to Start State’s First Biodiesel Plant. Associated
Press. December 9.
- Anon. Guide to Buying
Biodiesel. No date. National Biodiesel Board. Downloaded August
2005. www.biodiesel.org/buyingbiodiesel/guide/
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Resources for Table 2
Minnesota Department of Agriculture information Web site. Accessed
September 2005.
www.mda.state.mn.us/mgo/crops/camelina.htm
Putnam, D.H., J.T. Budin, L.A. Field, and W.M. Breene. 1993. Camelina:
A Promising Low-input Oilseed. p. 314-322. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Simon (eds.), New Crops. Wiley, New York.
UC SAREP Online Cover Crop Database. University of California at
Davis. Accessed September, 2005. www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/cgi-bin/ccrop.exe
Wallace, Janet. (ed.) 2001. Organic Field Crop Handbook. Second
edition. Canadian Organic Growers. Ottawa, Ont., Canada. 292 pp.
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Web Resources
Biodiesel: The Sustainability Dimensions
By Al Kurki, Amanda Hill and Mike Morris
NCAT Program Specialists
Paul Driscoll, Editor
Cole Loeffler, HTML Production
IP 281
Slot 281
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