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Just the Facts: A Basic Introduction to the Science Underlying NCBI Resources |
MICROARRAYS: CHIPPING AWAY AT THE MYSTERIES OF SCIENCE AND MEDICINE
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The proper and harmonious
expression of a large number of genes is a critical component
of normal growth and development and the maintenance of
proper health. Disruptions or changes in gene expression
are responsible for many diseases. |
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With only a few exceptions, every cell of the body contains a full
set of chromosomes and identical genes. Only a fraction of these
genes are turned on, however, and it is the subset that is "expressed"
that confers unique properties to each cell type. "Gene expression"
is the term used to describe the transcription of the information
contained within the DNA, the repository of genetic information, into
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules that are then translated into the
proteins that perform most of the critical functions of cells. Scientists
study the kinds and amounts of mRNA produced by a cell to learn
which genes are expressed, which in turn provides insights into
how the cell responds to its changing needs. Gene expression is
a highly complex and tightly regulated process that allows a cell
to respond dynamically both to environmental stimuli and to its
own changing needs. This mechanism acts as both an "on/off" switch
to control which genes are expressed in a cell as well as a "volume
control" that increases or decreases the level of expression
of particular genes as necessary.
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Enabling
Technologies |
Biomedical research evolves and advances not only through
the compilation of knowledge but also through the development
of new technologies. Using traditional methods to assay gene
expression, researchers were able to survey a relatively small
number of genes at a time. The emergence of new tools enables
researchers to address previously intractable problems and to
uncover novel potential targets for therapies. Microarrays allow
scientists to analyze expression of many genes in a single experiment
quickly and efficiently. They represent a major methodological
advance and illustrate how the advent of new technologies provides
powerful tools for researchers. Scientists are using microarray
technology to try to understand fundamental aspects of growth
and development as well as to explore the underlying genetic
causes of many human diseases.
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DNA Microarrays: The Technical Foundations
Two recent complementary advances, one in knowledge and one in
technology, are greatly facilitating the study of gene expression
and the discovery of the roles played by specific genes in the development
of disease. As a result of the Human Genome Project, there has been
an explosion in the amount of information available about the DNA
sequence of the human genome. Consequently, researchers have identified
a large number of novel genes within these previously unknown sequences.
The challenge currently facing scientists is to find a way to organize
and catalog this vast amount of information into a usable form.
Only after the functions of the new genes are discovered will the
full impact of the Human Genome Project be realized.
The second advance may facilitate the identification and classification
of this DNA sequence information and the assignment of functions
to these new genes: the emergence of DNA microarray technology.
A microarray works by exploiting the ability of a given mRNA molecule
to bind specifically to, or hybridize to, the DNA template
from which it originated. By using an array containing many DNA
samples, scientists can determine, in a single experiment, the expression
levels of hundreds or thousands of genes within a cell by measuring
the amount of mRNA bound to each site on the array. With the aid
of a computer, the amount of mRNA bound to the spots on the microarray
is precisely measured, generating a profile of gene expression in
the cell.
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A microarray
is a tool for analyzing gene expression that consists
of a small membrane or glass slide containing samples
of many genes arranged in a regular pattern. |
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Why Are Microarrays Important?
Microarrays are a significant advance both because they may contain
a very large number of genes and because of their small size.
Microarrays are therefore useful when one wants to survey a large
number of genes quickly or when the sample to be studied is small.
Microarrays may be used to assay gene expression within a single
sample or to compare gene expression in two different cell types
or tissue samples, such as in healthy and diseased tissue. Because
a microarray can be used to examine the expression of hundreds or
thousands of genes at once, it promises to revolutionize the way
scientists examine gene expression. This technology is still considered
to be in its infancy; therefore, many initial studies using microarrays
have represented simple surveys of gene expression profiles in a
variety of cell types. Nevertheless, these studies represent an
important and necessary first step in our understanding and cataloging
of the human genome.
As more information accumulates, scientists will be able to use
microarrays to ask increasingly complex questions and perform more
intricate experiments. With new advances, researchers will be able
to infer probable functions of new genes based on similarities in
expression patterns with those of known genes. Ultimately, these
studies promise to expand the size of existing gene families, reveal
new patterns of coordinated gene expression across gene families,
and uncover entirely new categories of genes. Furthermore, because
the product of any one gene usually interacts with those of many
others, our understanding of how these genes coordinate will become
clearer through such analyses, and precise knowledge of these inter-relationships
will emerge. The use of microarrays may also speed the identification
of genes involved in the development of various diseases by enabling
scientists to examine a much larger number of genes. This technology
will also aid the examination of the integration of gene expression
and function at the cellular level, revealing how multiple gene
products work together to produce physical and chemical responses
to both static and changing cellular needs.
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What Exactly Is a DNA Microarray?
DNA Microarrays are small, solid supports onto which the sequences
from thousands of different genes are immobilized, or attached, at
fixed locations. The supports themselves are usually glass microscope
slides, the size of two side-by-side pinky fingers, but can
also be silicon chips or nylon membranes. The DNA
is printed, spotted, or actually synthesized directly onto the support.
The American Heritage Dictionary defines "array" as "to
place in an orderly arrangement". It is important that the
gene sequences in a microarray are attached to their support in
an orderly or fixed way, because a researcher uses the location of each
spot in the array to identify a particular gene sequence. The spots
themselves can be DNA, cDNA, or oligonucleotides.
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An oligonucleotide,
or oligo as it is commonly called, is a short fragment of a
single-stranded DNA that is typically 5 to 50 nucleotides long.
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Designing a Microarray Experiment: The Basic Steps
One might ask, how does a scientist extract information about a
disease condition from a dime-sized glass or silicon chip containing
thousands of individual gene sequences? The whole process is based
on hybridization probing, a technique that uses fluorescently
labeled nucleic acid molecules as "mobile probes" to identify
complementary molecules, sequences that are able to base-pair
with one another. Each single-stranded DNA fragment is made up of
four different nucleotides, adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
and cytosine (C), that are linked end to end. Adenine is the complement
of, or will always pair with, thymine, and guanine is the complement
of cytosine. Therefore, the complementary sequence to G-T-C-C-T-A will
be C-A-G-G-A-T. When two complementary sequences find each other, such
as the immobilized target DNA and the mobile probe DNA, cDNA, or
mRNA, they will lock together, or hybridize.
Now, consider two cells: cell type 1, a healthy cell, and cell
type 2, a diseased cell. Both contain an identical set of four genes,
A, B, C, and D. Scientists are interested in determining
the expression profile of these four genes in the two cell types.
To do this, scientists isolate mRNA from each cell type and use
this mRNA as templates to generate cDNA with a "fluorescent tag"
attached. Different tags (red and green) are used so that the samples
can be differentiated in subsequent steps. The two labeled samples
are then mixed and incubated with a microarray containing the immobilized
genes A, B, C, and D. The labeled molecules bind to
the sites on the array corresponding to the genes expressed in each
cell.
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A DNA Microarray Experiment
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1. Prepare
your DNA chip using your chosen target DNAs. |
3. Incubate
your hybridization mixture containing fluorescently labeled
cDNAs with your DNA chip. |
4. Detect
bound cDNA using laser technology and store data in a
computer. |
5. Analyze data using computational methods. |
2. Generate
a hybridization solution containing a mixture of fluorescently labeled
cDNAs. |
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After this hybridization step is complete, a researcher will place
the microarray in a "reader" or "scanner" that consists of
some lasers, a special microscope, and a camera. The fluorescent
tags are excited by the laser, and the microscope and camera work
together to create a digital image of the array. These data are then
stored in a computer, and a special program is used either to
calculate the red-to-green fluorescence ratio or to subtract out
background data for each microarray spot by analyzing the digital
image of the array. If calculating ratios, the program then creates
a table that contains the ratios of the intensity of red-to-green
fluorescence for every spot on the array. For example, using the
scenario outlined above, the computer may conclude that both cell
types express gene A at the same level, that cell 1 expresses
more of gene B, that cell 2 expresses more of gene C,
and that neither cell expresses gene D. But remember, this
is a simple example used to demonstrate key points in experimental
design. Some microarray experiments can contain up to 30,000 target
spots. Therefore, the data generated from a single array can mount
up quickly.
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The Colors of a Microarray |
Reproduced with permission from the Office
of Science Education, the National Institutes of Health. |
In this schematic:
GREEN represents Control
DNA, where either DNA or cDNA derived from normal
tissue is hybridized to the target DNA.
RED represents Sample
DNA, where either DNA or cDNA is derived from diseased
tissue hybridized to the target DNA.
YELLOW represents a
combination of Control and Sample DNA, where both
hybridized equally to the target DNA.
BLACK represents areas where neither the Control
nor Sample DNA hybridized to the target DNA.
Each spot on an array is associated with a particular gene.
Each color in an array represents either healthy (control)
or diseased (sample) tissue. Depending on the type of array
used, the location and intensity of a color will tell us whether
the gene, or mutation, is present in either the control and/or
sample DNA. It will also provide an estimate of the expression
level of the gene(s) in the sample and control DNA.
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Types of Microarrays
There are three basic types of samples that can be used to construct
DNA microarrays, two are genomic and the other is "transcriptomic",
that is, it measures mRNA levels. What makes them different from
each other is the kind of immobilized DNA used to generate the array
and, ultimately, the kind of information that is derived from the
chip. The target DNA used will also determine the type of control
and sample DNA that is used in the hybridization solution.
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I. Changes in Gene Expression Levels
Determining the level, or volume, at which a certain gene is expressed
is called microarray expression analysis, and the arrays
used in this kind of analysis are called "expression
chips". The immobilized DNA is cDNA derived from the mRNA
of known genes, and once again, at least in some experiments, the
control and sample DNA hybridized to the chip is cDNA derived from
the mRNA of normal and diseased tissue, respectively. If a gene
is overexpressed in a certain disease state, then more sample cDNA,
as compared to control cDNA, will hybridize to the spot representing
that expressed gene. In turn, the spot will fluoresce red with greater
intensity than it will fluoresce green. Once researchers have characterized
the expression patterns of various genes involved in many diseases,
cDNA derived from diseased tissue from any individual can be hybridized
to determine whether the expression pattern of the gene from the
individual matches the expression pattern of a known disease. If
this is the case, treatment appropriate for that disease can be
initiated.
As researchers use expression chips to detect expression patterns—
whether a particular gene(s) is being expressed more or less under
certain circumstances—expression chips may also be used to examine
changes in gene expression over a given period of time, such as
within the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a molecualr network
that determines, in the normal cell, if the cell should pass through
its life cycle. There are a variety of genes involved in regulating
the stages of the cell cycle. Also built into this network are mechanisms
designed to protect the body when this system fails or breaks down because
of mutations within one of the "control genes", as is
the case with cancerous cell growth. An expression microarray
"experiment" could be designed where cell cycle data are generated
in multiple arrays and referenced to time "zero". Analysis of the
collected data could further elucidate details of the cell cycle
and its "clock", providing much needed data on the points
at which gene mutation leads to cancerous growth as well as sources
of therapeutic intervention.
In the same way, expression chips can be used to develop new drugs.
For instance, if a certain gene is overexpressed in a particular
form of cancer, researchers can use expression chips to see if a
new drug will reduce overexpression and force the cancer into remission.
Expression chips could also be used in disease diagnosis as well, e.g.,
in the identification of new genes involved in environmentally
triggered diseases, such as those diseases affecting the immune,
nervous, and pulmonary/respiratory systems.
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II. Genomic Gains and Losses
DNA repair genes are thought to be the body's frontline defense
against mutations and, as such, play a major role in cancer. Mutations
within these genes often manifest themselves as lost or broken chromosomes.
It has been hypothesized that certain chromosomal gains and losses
are related to cancer progression and that the patterns of these
changes are relevant to clinical prognosis. Using different laboratory
methods, researchers can measure gains and losses in the copy number
of chromosomal regions in tumor cells. Then, using mathematical
models to analyze these data, they can predict which chromosomal
regions are most likely to harbor important genes for tumor initiation
and disease progression. The results of such an analysis may be
depicted as a hierarchical treelike branching diagram, referred
to as a "tree model of tumor progression".
Researchers use a technique called microarray Comparative Genomic
Hybridization (CGH) to look for genomic gains
and losses or for a change in the number of copies of a particular
gene involved in a disease state. In microarray CGH, large pieces
of genomic DNA serve as the target DNA, and each spot of target
DNA in the array has a known chromosomal location. The hybridization
mixture will contain fluorescently labeled genomic DNA harvested
from both normal (control) and diseased (sample) tissue.
Therefore, if the number of copies of a particular target gene has increased,
a large amount of sample DNA will hybridize to those spots on the
microarray that represent the gene involved in that disease, whereas
comparatively small amounts of control DNA will hybridize to those
same spots. As a result, those spots containing the disease gene
will fluoresce red with greater intensity than they will fluoresce
green, indicating that the number of copies of the gene involved
in the disease has gone up.
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III. Mutations in DNA
When researchers use microarrays to detect mutations or polymorphisms
in a gene sequence, the target, or immobilized DNA, is usually that
of a single gene. In this case though, the target sequence placed
on any given spot within the array will differ from that of other
spots in the same microarray, sometimes by only one or a few specific
nucleotides. One type of sequence commonly used in this type of
analysis is called a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism, or SNP, a
small genetic change or variation that can occur within a person's
DNA sequence. Another difference in mutation microarray analysis,
as compared to expression or CGH microarrays, is that this type
of experiment only requires genomic DNA derived from a normal sample
for use in the hybridization mixture.
Once researchers have established that a SNP pattern is associated
with a particular disease, they can use SNP microarray technology
to test an individual for that disease expression pattern to determine
whether he or she is susceptible to (at risk of developing) that
disease. When genomic DNA from an individual is hybridized to an
array loaded with various SNPs, the sample DNA will hybridize with
greater frequency only to specific SNPs associated with that person.
Those spots on the microarray will then fluoresce with greater intensity,
demonstrating that the individual being tested may have, or is at
risk for developing, that disease.
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In Brief: Microarray Applications
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Microarray
type |
Application |
CGH |
Tumor
classification, risk assessment, and prognosis prediction |
Expression
analysis |
Drug
development, drug response, and therapy development |
Mutation/Polymorphism
analysis |
Drug
development, therapy development, and tracking disease progression |
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NCBI and Microarray Data Management
Why is it necessary to have a uniform system that will manage and
provide a disbursement point for microarray data? Consider
the amount of data that can potentially be generated using a single
microarray chip. Suppose that chip contains 30,000 spots of target
DNA. Researchers interpreting the data generated by that chip would
need to know the biological identity of each target—what gene is
where; the biological properties of the control and sample DNA;
the experimental conditions and procedures used in setting up the
experiment; and finally, the results. Although experiments such as
these will undoubtedly push forward our current understanding of
gene expression and regulation, many new challenges are presented in
terms of data tracking and analysis.
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What Is GEO?
As we have just alluded, microarray technology is one of the most
recent and important experimental breakthroughs in molecular biology.
Today, proficiency in generating data is fast overcoming the capacity
for storing and analyzing it. Much of this information is scattered
across the Internet or is not even available to the public. As
more laboratories acquire this technology, the problem will only
get worse. This avalanche of data requires standardization of storage,
sharing, and publishing techniques.
To support the public use and dissemination of gene
expression data, NCBI has launched the
Gene Expression Omnibus, or GEO. GEO represents NCBI's
effort to build an expression data repository and online resource
for the storage and retrieval of gene expression data from any organism
or artificial source. Many types of gene expression data, such as
those types discussed in this primer, are accepted and archived
as a public dataset.
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Developing MAML: Reading Off the Same Platform
Microarray Markup Language, developed by the "MAML"
working group of MGED, the Microarray Gene Expression Database,
is a first attempt to provide a standard platform for submitting
and analyzing the enormous amounts of microarray expression data
generated by different laboratories around the world. The goal of
this group, which includes NCBI investigators, is to facilitate
the adoption of standards for DNA-array experiment annotation and
data representation, as well as the introduction of standard experimental
controls and data normalization methods. The underlying goal is
to facilitate the establishment of gene expression data repositories, the
comparability of gene expression data from different sources, the interoperability
of different gene expression databases, and data analysis software.
MAML proposes a framework for describing information about a DNA-array
experiment and a data format for communicating this information,
including details about:
- Experimental design: the set of the hybridization experiments
as a whole
- Array design: each array used and each spot on the array
- Samples: samples used, the extract preparation, and labeling
- Hybridizations: procedures and parameters
- Measurements: images, quantitation, and specifications
- Controls: types, values, and specifications
MAML is independent of the particular experimental platform and
provides a framework for describing experiments done on all types
of DNA arrays, including spotted and synthesized arrays, as well
as oligo and cDNA arrays. What's more, MAML provides format to represent
microarray data in a flexible way, which allows analysis of data
obtained from not only any existing microarray platforms but also
many of the possible future variants, including protein arrays.
Although the data in GEO are not currently provided in MAML format,
it is NCBI's goal to have the data delivered in a number of formats,
including MAML, soon to be replaced by a more recent version called
MAGEML (MicroArray Gene Expression Markup Language).
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The Benefits of GEO and MAML
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- By storing vast amounts of data on gene expression profiles
derived from multiple experiments using varied criteria
and conditions, GEO will aid in the study of functional
genomics—the development and application of global experimental
approaches to assess gene function
- GEO will facilitate the cross-validation of data obtained
using different techniques and technologies and will help
set benchmarks and standards for further gene expression
studies
- By making the information stored in GEO publicly available,
the fields of bioinformatics and functional genomics will
be both promoted and advanced
- That such experimental data should be freely accessible
to all is consistent with NCBI's legislative mandate and
mission: to develop new information technologies to aid
in the understanding of fundamental molecular and genetic
processes that control health and disease
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The Promise of Microarray Technology in Treating Disease
Now that you understand the concept behind array technology, picture
this: a hand-held instrument that a physician could use to quickly
diagnose cancer or other diseases during a routine office visit.
What if that same instrument could also facilitate a personalized
treatment regimen, exactly right for you? Personalized drugs. Molecular
diagnostics. Integration of diagnosis and therapeutics. These are
the long-term promises of microarray technology. Maybe not today
or even tomorrow, but someday. For the first time, arrays offer
hope for obtaining global views of biological processes—simultaneous
readouts of all the body's components—by providing a systematic
way to survey DNA and RNA variation. NCBI, by continuing its efforts
to provide a standard format for microarray data and to provide
free, universal access to that data, will help the scientific community
in making those promises realities.
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Revised: July 27, 2007.
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