References and Notes
1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. HHS Blueprint for Action on Breastfeeding, Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Women's Health, 2000.
2. Gallenberg LA, Vodicnik MJ. Transfer of persistent chemicals in milk. Drug Metab Rev 21(2):277-317 (1989).
3. Porterfield SP. Vulnerability of the developing brain to thyroid abnormalities: environmental insults to the thyroid system. Environ Health Perspect 102(suppl 2):125-130 (1994).
4. Knowles JA. Excretion of drugs in milk - a review. J Pediatr 66(6):1068-1082 (1965).
5. Wilson JT, Brown RD, Cherek DR, Dailey JW, Hilman B, Jobe PC, Manno BR, Manno JE, Redetzki HM, Stewart JJ. Drug excretion in human breast milk: principles, pharmacokinetics and projected consequences. Clin Pharmacokinet 5:1-66 (1980).
6. Grandjean P, Jorgensen PJ, Weihe P. Human milk as a source of methylmercury exposure in infants. Environ Health Perspect 102:74-77 (1994).
7. Fitzgerald EF, Hwang SA, Bush B, Cook K, Worswick P. Fish consumption and breast milk PCB concentrations among Mohawk women at Akwesasne. Am J Epidemiol 148(2):164-172 (1998).
8. Stewart P, Darvill T, Lonky E, Reihman J, Pagano J, Bush B. Assessment of prenatal exposure to PCBs from maternal consumption of Great Lakes fish: an analysis of PCB pattern and concentration. Environ Res 80(2 Pt 2):S87-S96 (1999).
9. Czaja K, Ludwicki JK, Goralczyk K, Strucinski P. Relationship between two consecutive lactations and fat level in persistent organochlorine compound concentrations in human breast milk. Chemosphere 43(4-7):889-893 (2001).
10. Harris CA, Woolridge MW, Hay AW. Factors affecting the transfer of organochlorine pesticide residues to breastmilk. Chemosphere 43(2):243-256 (2001).
11. Boersma ER, Lanting CI. Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins. Consequences for longterm neurological and cognitive development of the child lactation. Adv Exp Med Biol 478:271-287 (2001).
12. Abraham K, Papke O, Gross A, Kordonouri O, Wiegand S, Wahn U, Helge H. Time course of PCDD/PCDF/PCB concentrations in breast-feeding mothers and their infants. Chemosphere 37(9-12):1731-1741 (1998).
13. Beck H, Ekhart K, Mathar W, Wittkowski R. PCDD and PCDF body burden from food intake in the Federal Republic of Germany. Chemosphere 18:417-424 (1989).
14. Mes J, Davies DJ, Doucet J, Weber D, McMullen E. Levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in Canadian human breast milk and their relationship to some characteristics of the donors. Food Addit Contam 10(4):429-441 (1993).
15. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, McKinney JD, Carreras N, Hardy P, Thullen J, Tingelstad J, Tully M. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene (DDE) in human milk: effects of maternal factors and previous lactation. Am J Public Health 76(2):172-177 (1986).
16. Emery WB III, Canolty NL, Aitchison JM, Dunkley WL. Influence of sampling on fatty acid composition of human milk. Am J Clin Nutr 31(7):1127-1130 (1978).
17. Bitman J, Wood DL, Mehta NR, Hamosh P, Hamosh M. Lipids of human milk. In: Techniques and Applications of Thin Layer Chromatography. (Touchstond J, Sherma J, ed). New York:John Wiley and Sons, 1985;261-277.
18. Hall B. Changing composition of human milk and early development of appetite control. Lancet 1:779-781 (1975).
19. Mes J, Davies DJ. Presence of polychlorinated biphenyl and organochlorine pesticide residues and the absence of polychlorinated terphenyls in Canadian human milk samples. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol (3):381-387 (1979).
20. Greene RJ, Gearhart JM, Bankston LA, Finch DJ, Bryant C, Fortunatio SJ, Fisher JW. Effects of protein and lipid content on human breast milk/air partitions of selected chemicals. Toxicologist 13(1):426 (1993).
21. Anderson PO. Therapy review: drug use during breast feeding. Clin Pharmacokin 10:594-624 (1991).
22. Oo CY, Kuhn RJ, Desai N, McNamara PJ. Active transport of cimetidine into human milk. Clin Pharmacol Ther 58(5):548-555 (1995).
23. Brown-Grant K. Extrathyroidal iodide concentrating mechanisms. Physiol Rev 41:189-213 (1961).
24. Wolf MS. Occupationally derived chemicals in breast milk. Am J Ind Med 4:259-281 (1983).
25. Rasmussen F, Linzell JL. The acetylation of sulphanilamide by mammary tissue of lactating goats. Biochem Pharmacol 16:918-919 (1967).
26. Rasmussen F. Excretion of drugs by milk. In: Concepts in Biochemical Pharmacology (Brodie BB, Gillette JR, eds). New York:Springer-Verlag, 1971;231-245.
27. Breitzka RL, Sandritter TL, Hatzopoulos FK. Principles of drug transfer into breast milk and drug disposition in the nursing infant. J Hum Lact 13(2):155-158 (1997).
28. Wilson JT, Brown RD, Hinson JL, Dailey JW. Pharmacokinetic pitfalls in the estimation of the breast milk/plasma ratio for drugs. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 25:667-689 (1985).
29. Shelley ML, Andersen ME, Fisher JW. An inhalation distribution model for the lactating mother and nursing child. Toxicol Lett 43:23-29 (1988).
30. Fisher JW, Whittaker TA, Taylor DH, Clewell HJ, Andersen ME. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of the pregnant rat: a multiroute exposure model for trichloroethylene and its metabolite, trichloroacetic acid. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 99:395-414 (1989).
31. Byczkowski JZ, Fisher JW. A computer program linking physiologically based pharmacokinetic model with cancer risk assessment for breast-fed infants. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 46(2):155-163 (1995).
32. Byczkowski JZ, Fisher JW. Lactational transfer of tetrachloroethylene in rats. Risk Anal 14(3):339-349 (1994).
33. U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Vol 1. EPA/540/1-89/002. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989.
34. Amin-Zaki L, Elhassani S, Majeed MA, Clarkson TW, Doherty RA, Greenwood MR, Giovanoli-Jakubczak T. Perinatal methylmercury poisoning in Iraq. Am J Dis Child 130:1070-1076 (1976).
35. Fujita M, Takabatake E. Mercury levels in human maternal and neonatal blood, hair and milk. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 18:205-209 (1977).
36. Byczkowski JZ, Lipscomb JC. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of the lactational transfer of methylmercury. Risk Anal 21(5):869-882 (2001).
37. Clewell HJ, Gearhart JM, Gentry PR, Covington TR, VanLandingham CB, Crump KS, Shipp AM. Evaluation of the uncertainty in an oral reference dose for methylmercury due to interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics. Risk Anal 19:547-558 (1999).
38. Byczkowski JZ. Linked physiologically based pharmacokinetic model and cancer risk assessment for breast-fed infants. Drug Inf J 30:401-412 (1996).
39. Oskarsson A, Palminge, Hallen I, Sundberg J. Exposure to toxic elements via breast milk. Analyst 120(3):765-770 (1995).
40. Hallen IP, Jorhem L, Lagerkvist BJ, Oskarsson A. Lead and cadmium levels in human milk and blood. Sci Total Environ 166:149-155 (1995).
41. Honour AJ, Myant NB, Rowlands EN. Secretion of radioiodine in digestive juices and milk in man. Clin Sci 11:447-463 (1952).
42. Andersen ME, Gearhart JM, Clewell HJ. Pharmacokinetic data needs to support risk assessments for inhaled and ingested manganese. Neurotoxicology 20(2-3):161-172 (1999).
43. Stastny D, Vogel RS, Picciano MF. Manganese intake and serum manganese concentration of human milk-fed and formula-fed infants. Am J Clin Nutr 39(6):872-878 (1984).
44. Urbansky ET. Perchlorate chemistry: implications for analysis and remediation. Bioremed J 2(2):81-95 (1998).
45. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, Williams JR, Knight GJ, Gagnon J, O'Heir CE, Mitchell ML, Hermos RJ, Waisbren SE, et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Eng J Med 341(8):549-555 (1999).
46. U.S. EPA. Perchlorate Environmental Contamination: Toxicological Review and Draft Risk Characterization (External Review Draft). Available: http://oaspub.epa.gov/eims/qrydetail.summary?dsid=24002&z_chk=63296 [cited 19 March 2002].
47. Dydek GJ, Blue PW. Human breast milk excretion of iodine-131 following diagnostic and therapeutic administration to a lactating patient with Graves' disease. J Nucl Med 29: 407-410 (1988).
48. Yu KO, Mahle DA, Narayanan L, Godfrey RJ, Todd PN, Parish MA, McCafferty JD, Ligman TA, Sterner T, Buttler GW, et al. Tissue distribution and inhibition of iodide uptake by perchlorate in pregnant and lactating rats in drinking water studies. Toxicologist 60(1):291 (2002).
49. Mahle DA, Godfrey RJ, McCafferty JD, Bausman TR, Narayanan L, Parish MA, Buttler GW, Todd PN, Ligman TA, Mattie DR, et al. Kinetics of perchlorate and iodide in lactating S-D rats and pups at postnatal day 10. Toxicologist 66(1-S):139 (2002).
Last Updated: May 13, 2002