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David E. Jacobs,¹ Robert P. Clickner,² Joey Y. Zhou,¹ Susan M. Viet,² David A. Marker,² John W. Rogers,² Darryl C. Zeldin,³ Pamela Broene,² and Warren Friedman¹

¹U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control, Washington, DC, USA; ²Westat, Rockville, Maryland, USA; ³Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA

Abstract

In this study we estimated the number of housing units in the United States with lead-based paint and lead-based paint hazards. We included measurements of lead in intact and deteriorated paint, interior dust, and bare soil. A nationally representative, random sample of 831 housing units was evaluated in a survey between 1998 and 2000 ; the units and their occupants did not differ significantly from nationwide characteristics. Results indicate that 38 million housing units had lead-based paint, down from the 1990 estimate of 64 million. Twenty-four million had significant lead-based paint hazards. Of those with hazards, 1.2 million units housed low-income families (< $30,000/year) with children under 6 years of age. Although 17% of government-supported, low-income housing had hazards, 35% of all low-income housing had hazards. For households with incomes $30,000/year, 19% had hazards. Fourteen percent of all houses had significantly deteriorated lead-based paint, and 16% and 7%, respectively, had dust lead and soil lead levels above current standards of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The prevalence of lead-based paint and hazards increases with age of housing, but most painted surfaces, even in older housing, do not have lead-based paint. Between 2% and 25% of painted building components were coated with lead-based paint. Housing in the Northeast and Midwest had about twice the prevalence of hazards compared with housing in the South and West. The greatest risk occurs in older units with lead-based paint hazards that either will be or are currently occupied by families with children under 6 years of age and are low-income and/or are undergoing renovation or maintenance that disturbs lead-based paint. This study also confirms projections made in 2000 by the President's Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks to Children of the number of houses with lead-based paint hazards. Public- and private-sector resources should be directed to units posing the greatest risk if future lead poisoning is to be prevented. Key words: childhood lead poisoning, housing, housing survey, lead, lead-based paint, lead paint, lead poisoning prevention. Environ Health Perspect 110:A599-A606 (2002) . [Online 13 September 2002]

http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2002/110pA599-A606jacobs/ abstract.html

Address correspondence to D.E. Jacobs, Office of Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, P-3202, 451 Seventh St. SW, Washington, DC 20410 USA. Telephone: (202) 755-4973. Fax: 202-755-1000. E-mail: David_E._Jacobs@hud.gov

We thank the members of the hundreds of households who participated in this study and generously provided their time and access to their homes. We also thank the field interviewers and lead-based paint inspectors who collected the data and environmental samples.

This work was funded by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD Contract C-OPC-21356) and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) . The survey plan was reviewed and approved by the institutional review boards of Westat and of the NIEHS.

Received 28 August 2001 ; accepted 5 March 2002.