The working group thanks Drs. Ida Onorato, Marc Bulterys, Harold Jaffe, Alan Greenberg, Patrick Sullivan, Mr. Kevin Delaney, Ms. Marie Morgan, Ms. Thena Durham and Ms. Susan Danner at CDC, Ms. Yolanda Olszewski at the CORE Center in Chicago, Illinois, and Dr. Patricia Garcia at Northwestern University for their thoughtful review and contributions. The working group also thanks the women who have participated in the focus groups, pilots, research studies, and rapid testing programs that have taught many lessons and demonstrated the acceptability, feasibility, and effectiveness of rapid HIV testing during labor and delivery. The knowledge gained from, and the working group’s experiences with, these projects were helpful in formulating our approach to this document.

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References, Suggested Reading, and Resources

References

1. Office of the Inspector General. Reducing obstetrician barriers to offering HIV testing. 2002. Available at:
   http://oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/
   oei-05-01-00260.pdf Accessed July 10, 2003.
2. Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1409-1414.
3. Shaffer N, Bulterys M, Simonds RJ. Short courses of zidovudine and perinatal transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1042-1043.
4. Fiscus SA, Adimora AA, Funk ML, et al. Trends in interventions to reduce perinatal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission in North Carolina. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:664-668.
5. Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:795-802.
6. Moodley D, Moodley J, Coovadia H, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of nevirapine versus a combination of zidovudine and lamivudine to reduce intrapartum and early postpartum mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1. J Infect Dis 2003;167:725-735.
7. CDC. Revised recommendations for HIV screening of pregnant women. MMWR 2001;50(No. RR-19):59-85.
8. Bulterys M, Jamieson D, O’Sullivan MJ, et al. Rapid HIV testing at labor and delivery: a multi-center intervention study. National HIV Prevention Conference; July 2003; Atlanta, Georgia. Abstract T2-G1103.
9. CDC. Approval of a new rapid test for HIV antibody [Notice to Readers]. MMWR 2002;51:1051-1052.
10. CDC. Rapid point-of-care testing for HIV-1 in labor and delivery: Chicago, Illinois, 2002. MMWR 2003;52:866-868.
11. U.S. Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR 2002;51(No. RR-18):1-38. Regularly updated document available at:
    http://AIDSinfo.nih.gov. Accessed October 21, 2003.
12. FDA licensed and approved HIV, HTLV and hepatitis tests. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cber/products/testkits.htm. Accessed July 10, 2003.
13. CDC. 1998 Guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. MMWR 1998;47(No. RR-1):1-118.
14. Sansom S, Jamieson D, Bulterys M, Farnham P, Fowler M. HIV retesting during pregnancy: Costs and effectiveness in preventing perinatal transmission. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:782-790.
15. OraQuick Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test [package insert]. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: OraSure Technologies, Inc. Available at: http://www.orasure.com/
    uploaded/331.pdf?134&sec=2&subsec=2 Accessed October 21, 2003.
16. Reveal Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test [package insert]. Halifax, Nova Scotia: MedMira Laboratories, Inc. Available at: http://www.reveal-hiv.com/pdf/Reveal_Pa.pdf Accessed October 21, 2003.
17. Capparelli E, Mirochnick M, Dankner WM, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerance of zidovudine in preterm infants. J Pediatr 2003;142(1):47-52.
18. The International Perinatal HIV Group. The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med 1999.340:977-987.
19. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet 1999;353:1035-1039.
20. Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/
    guidelines/pediatric/PED_012004.html.
    Accessed February 2, 2004.

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Suggested Reading

Branson B. Rapid tests for HIV antibody. AIDS Review. 2000;2:76-83.

Bulterys M, Nolan ML, Jamieson DJ, Dominguez K, Fowler MG. Advances in the prevention of mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission: current issues, future challenges. AIDScience [serial online] 2002;2(4). Available at http://aidscience.org/Articles/aidscience017.asp. Accessed November 14, 2003.

CDC. Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral. MMWR 2001;50(No. RR-19)1-57.

Fowler MG, Simonds RJ, Roongpisuthipong A. Update on perinatal HIV transmission. Pediatr Clin North Am 2000;47:21-38.

Grobman W, Garcia P. The cost-effectiveness of voluntary intrapartum rapid human immunodeficiency virus testing for women without adequate prenatal care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:1062-1071.

Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:795-802.

Institute of Medicine, National Research Council. Reducing the odds: preventing perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1999.

Jamieson D, O’Sullivan MJ, Maupin R, et al. The challenges of informed consent for rapid HIV testing in labor. J Women’s Health. In press.

Kourtis, AP. Prevention of perinatal HIV transmission: current status and future developments in anti-retroviral therapy. Drugs 2002;62:2213-2220.

Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, Lee FK. Timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA 2001;285:709-712.

Minkoff H, O’Sullivan M. The case for rapid HIV testing during labor [editorial]. JAMA 1998;279;1743-1744.

Mock PA, Shaffer N, Bhadrakom C, et al. Maternal viral load and timing of mother-to-child HIV transmission, Bangkok, Thailand. AIDS 1999;13:407-414.

Mofeson M. Tale of two epidemics—the continuing challenge of preventing mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 2003 ;167:721-724.

Walter EB, Royce R, Fernandez MI, et al. New mothers’ knowledge and attitudes about perinatal human immunodeficiency virus infection. Obstet Gynecol 2001;26:495-500.

Webber M, Demas P, Enriquez E, et al. Pilot study of expedited HIV-1 testing of women in labor at an inner-city hospital in New York City. Am J Perinatol 2001;18(1):49-57.

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Resources

CDCPerinatal HIV Prevention Web site.

Includes current CDC perinatal HIV prevention programs, current CDC recommendations and studies on perinatal HIV prevention in the United States, and notices and summaries of national meetings of CDC perinatal HIV prevention grantees.

CDC Rapid HIV Testing Web site.

Includes frequently asked questions about rapid HIV testing, official CDC and FDA releases, and studies on rapid tests.

Women and Children with HIV Web site of François-Xavier Bagnoud Center (University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey) and Center for HIV Information (University of California San Francisco). Available at: http://www.womenchildrenhiv.org/

Includes clinical information, training resources, and best-practice recommendations regarding perinatal HIV prevention and pediatric HIV infection. Resources for U.S. and international settings.

The Well Project Web site. Available at: http://www.thewellproject.com

Includes fact sheets, data sets, summary slides, a searchable database of clinical trials, a resource directory, and a physician network for expert discussion on treatment. Additionally, members will be able to participate in confidential and secure discussion boards; read about real people living with, and successfully managing, HIV; download advocacy tools; and receive a regular e-mail newsletter highlighting the most up-to-date information about women and HIV infection.

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