This booklet draws from scientifically based research about what can be done to help children to develop their language abilities, increase their knowledge, become familiar with books and other printed materials, learn letters and sounds, recognize numbers and learn to count.

Prepared by
The Early Childhood-Head Start Task Force
U.S. Department of Education
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
2002

U.S. Department of Education
Rod Paige
Secretary

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Tommy G. Thompson
Secretary

Early Childhood-Head Start Task Force

April 2002

This publication is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Early Childhood-Head Start Task Force, Teaching Our Youngest, Washington, D.C., 2002.

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Children's books are mentioned in this booklet as examples and are only a few of many appropriate children's books. Other materials mentioned are provided as resources and examples for the reader's convenience. The federal government does not endorse any particular book, article or author, and inclusion of these references does not reflect their importance, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed.

"We all have the duty to call attention to the science and seriousness of early childhood cognitive development because the ages between birth and age five are the foundation upon which successful lives are built."

Laura Bush
White House Summit on Early Childhood Cognitive Development,
July 26, 2001

This publication was conceived under the direction of the Early Childhood-Head Start Task Force between the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The publication was written by Bonnie Armbruster, Fran Lehr, and Jean Osborn, and had the benefit of a careful reading and excellent suggestions from Judy Schickedanz.

The Early Childhood-Head Start Task Force would like to thank the many women and men who assisted in putting this publication together. We would also like to thank Sandra Baxter and the National Institute for Literacy.

Everyone who interacts with a young child is a teacher. This booklet is written for you. As preschool teachers and child care providers, you have both the wonderful opportunity and the important responsibility to teach and nurture our youngest children. The years from birth through age five are a time of extraordinary growth and change. It is in these years that children develop the basic knowledge, understanding, and interests they need to reach the goal of being successful learners, readers, and writers. All young children deserve experiences that will help them to achieve this goal.

You play an important role in ensuring that "no child is left behind." You spend many hours with children and the right kind of activities can help them tremendously. You can be especially helpful to those children who have limited learning experiences at home.

This booklet draws from scientifically based research about what you can do to help children to develop their language abilities, increase their knowledge, become familiar with books and other printed materials, learn letters and sounds, recognize numbers, and learn to count. Many examples of strategies you can use for teaching these skills are included here. Also included are examples of ways to create an environment in your preschool classrooms that will nurture children's natural curiosity and their zest for learning.

Remember, you hold the key to the future academic success of the young children in your care.

Effective preschool classrooms are places where children feel well cared for and safe. They are places where children are valued as individuals and where their needs for attention, approval, and affection are supported. They are also places where children can be helped to acquire a strong foundation in the knowledge and skills needed for school success.

• Young children need teachers who welcome all children to their classrooms, including children from various cultures, whose first language is not English and children who have disabilities.

• Young children need teachers who take time to work with them individually, in small groups, and sometimes with the entire class–to help them develop their cognitive and social skills, their language abilities, and their interest in learning new things about the world.

• Young children need instruction to develop the thinking, language, and early literacy skills needed for continued school success.

Effective preschool teachers and child care providers:

• Know when children can figure out new ideas and concepts on their own and when it is important to explain things to them step-by-step.

• Encourage children to participate in classroom activities and to honor the classroom rules.

• Listen to what the children say and expand upon their language, building their vocabulary and background knowledge.

• Know when to teach directly, when to provide time for exploration and discovery, when to practice skills, and when to encourage creativity.

• Plan activities that have a purpose and that challenge children.

• Know how to help children learn to work together and to resolve their conflicts.

• Encourage children to respect each other's time and personal belongings.

• Provide many opportunities for conversations between and among children and with adults.

• Know how to establish and maintain order in a classroom but in a manner that permits the children to learn how to participate in and enjoy learning.

• Arrange the classroom in a way that enhances their work with children and how the children spend their time.

In the landmark 1986 review Becoming a Nation of Readers, the Commission on Reading, called reading aloud to children "the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for success in reading." The best time to begin reading books with children is when they are infants—babies as young as six weeks old enjoy being read to and looking at pictures. By age two or three, children begin to develop an awareness of printed letters and words. They see adults around them reading, writing, and using printed words for many purposes. Toddlers and preschoolers are especially ready to learn from adults reading to and with them.

Reading aloud to young children is important because it helps them acquire the information and skills they need to succeed in school and life, such as:

• Knowledge of printed letters and words and the relationship between sound and print.
• The meaning of many words.
• How books work and a variety of writing styles.
• The world in which they live.
• The difference between written language and everyday conversation.
• The pleasure of reading.

Here are some suggestions for reading aloud to children.

• Make reading books an enjoyable experience. Choose a comfortable place where the children can sit near you. Help them feel safe and secure. Be enthusiastic about reading. Show the children that reading is an interesting and rewarding activity. When children enjoy being read to, they will grow to love books and be eager to learn to read.

• Read to children frequently. Read to the children in your care several times a day. Establish regular times for reading during the day, and find other opportunities to read:

  • Start or end the day with a book.
  • Read to children after a morning play period which also helps settle them down.
  • Read to them during snack time or before nap time.

• Help children to learn as you read. Offer explanations, make observations, and help the children to notice new information. Explain words that they may not know. Point out how the pictures in a book relate to the story. If the story takes place in an historic era or in an unfamiliar place, give children some background information so that they will better understand and enjoy the story. Talk about the characters' actions and feelings. Find ways to compare the book that you are reading with what the children have been doing in the classroom.

• Ask children questions as you read. Ask questions that help children connect the story with their own lives or that help them to compare the book with other books that they have read. Ask questions that help the children to notice what is in the book and ask them to predict what happens next.

• Encourage children to talk about the book. Have a conversation with the children about the book you are reading. Answer their questions. Welcome their observations, and add to what they say. Continue to talk about the book after you have read it. Invite the children to comment on the story. Ask them to talk about their favorite parts and encourage them to tell the story in their own words.

• Read many kinds of books. Children need to be read different kinds of books. Storybooks can help children to learn about times, cultures, and peoples other than their own; stories can help them understand how others think, act, and feel. Informational books can help children learn facts about the world around them. These books also introduce children to important concepts and vocabulary that they will need for success in school. Read books that relate to the children's backgrounds: their experiences, cultures, languages and interests. Read books with characters and situations both similar and dissimilar to those in the children's lives so they can learn about the world.

• Choose books to help you teach. Use alphabet books to help you teach the names of the letters and the sounds that each letter represents and use counting books to teach children how to count and to recognize numbers. Use poetry or rhyming books to support your teaching of phonological awareness. Use big books (oversized books that your children can easily see) to point out letters, words, and other features of print and to teach book handling. Choose stories that help children learn about social behavior, for example books about friendship to help children learn to share and cooperate. Also choose stories that show children how the world around them works for example, what is happening with the eggs that are hatching in your science area.

• Reread favorite books. Children love to hear their favorite books over and over again. Hearing books read several times helps children understand and notice new things. For example, they may figure out what an unfamiliar word means when they have heard the story several times. They may notice repeated sound patterns. If you point out some letters and words as you read the book repeatedly, children also may pick up specific words that are easily recognized and specific letter-sound relationships.

We need to put to rest the old saying, "Children should be seen and not heard." Research shows beyond question that it is through having many opportunities to talk as well as to listen to teachers and peers that children gain language skills so valuable for their success in reading and writing.

It is important for young children to be able to:

• Listen carefully for different purposes, such as to get information or for enjoyment.
• Use spoken language for a variety of purposes.
• Follow and give simple directions and instructions.
• Ask and answer questions.
• Use appropriate volume and speed when they speak.
• Participate in discussions and follow the rules of polite conversation, such as staying on a topic and taking turns.
• Use language to express and describe their feelings and ideas.

It is important for teachers to:

• Ask open-ended questions that invite children to expand upon their answers.
• Present new words to children to expand their vocabularies.
• Respond to questions and let children take the conversational lead.
• Respond to children's questions and let them build their language skills.

Here are some things that you can do to help develop and expand your children's listening and speaking skills:

• Engage children in conversation throughout the day.

• When reading aloud to the children, encourage them to predict what will happen in the story, to comment on the story, and to make connections between the story and their personal experiences.

• Play games that will focus children's attention on the importance of listening carefully.

• Gently reinforce the rules of good listening and speaking throughout the day.

• Capitalize on routine opportunities to have the children follow or give directions.

The name for the ability to notice and work with the sounds in language is phonological awareness. Young children who have phonological awareness notice, for example, that words can begin or end with the same sound — that bag, ball, and bug all begin with the sound of "b;" that words can rhyme; and that sentences are made up of separate words. Research shows that how quickly children will learn to read often depends on how much phonological awareness they have when they begin kindergarten.

It is important for young children to be able to:

• Repeat rhyming songs and poems, identify rhymes, and generate rhyming words when playing a rhyming game.
• Recognize the common sounds at the beginning of a series of words (alliteration).
• Isolate the beginning sounds in familiar words.

Here are some things that you can do to help your children learn about the sounds of spoken language:

• Choose books to read aloud that focus on sounds, rhyming, and alliteration.

• Have the children sing or say a familiar nursery rhyme or song. Repeat it several times, raising your voice on words that rhyme. Then have the children join in, saying the rhyming words with you.

• Invite the children to make up new verses of familiar songs or rhymes by changing the beginning sounds of words.

• Play word games with the children. When possible, use children's names in the games.

From the time children are born, print is a part of their lives. Words decorate their blankets, sheets, and PJs. They appear on the posters and pictures that decorate their walls. They are on the blocks and toys that they play with and in the books that are read to them. Although printed words may be all around them, young children are not often aware of them. And, of course, they do not yet understand the role printed words will play in their lives.

It is important for young children to:

• Recognize print in their surroundings.
• Understand that print carries meaning.
• Know that print is used for many purposes.
• Learn about print through experimental writing.

Children learn about print by seeing many examples. In your classroom, these examples should include:

• Books and other printed materials for the children to look at and pretend to read. For very young children, have soft-covered and board books that are washable.
• Photographs and pictures with captions and labels.
• Posters, calendars, and bulletin board displays that feature print.
• Labels and signs for special areas of the classroom.

In addition, you should also have available a variety of props with printed letters and words for the children to use in dramatic play. Here are a few suggestions:

• Menus, order pads, and play money.
• Recipes, empty food cartons, and marked plastic measuring spoons and cups.
• Old telephone books, memo pads, envelopes, and address labels.
• Price tags, stickers, and large paper bags (with printed words).
• Toy cars, trucks, and farm and construction equipment (with printed words).

Of course, always keep plenty of pencils, markers, and crayons handy for the children to use. Here are some other things that you can do to help your children learn about letters and words.

• Show the children that printed materials are all around them by reading examples from everyday life.

• Have the children help you make signs and labels for projects or for special areas in the room.

• Draw the children's attention to the many ways that you use printed letters and words everyday.

• Distinguish between children's beginning writing and drawing.

As adults, we do not pay much attention to the routine features of books and book handling. We just know that, in English, we read from left to right and from the top to the bottom of a page, that words are separated by spaces, and that sentences begin with capital letters and end with some kind of punctuation mark. We forget that when we were children, we also had to learn these things.

It is important for young children to:

• Know how to handle books appropriately.
• Recognize book features such as the front and back covers, and the top and bottom, of a book.
• Recognize that a book has a title, was written by an author, and has drawings done by an illustrator.
• Recognize that printed letters and words run from left to right across the page and from and from top to bottom.

Here are some things that you can do to help children learn about books:

• Help the children learn how to hold a book and show them that we read from front to back and that we go through a book page by page. For older children, point out features of books such as the front cover and the title.

• As you read from big books, occasionally emphasize the direction in which we read print by pointing to the first word on a line and running a finger or hand beneath the words as you read from left to right and from top to bottom.

Children who enter kindergarten knowing many letter names tend to have an easier time learning to read than do children who have not learned these skills. In fact, it is unreasonable to believe that children will be able to read until they can recognize and name a number of letters. To read, children recognize letters and know how to connect these individual letters and sometimes combinations of letters with the sounds of spoken words.

It is important for young children to be able to:

• Recognize and name letters.
• Recognize beginning letters in familiar words (especially their names).
• Recognize both capital and lowercase letters.
• Relate some letters to the specific sounds they represent

As you plan your instruction, make sure that the children in your care have many opportunities to learn to identify letters, to write letters, and to find out how letters function to represent the sounds in words.

In your classroom, you should have at children's eye level displays of the alphabet, such as large alphabet cards. Alphabet blocks, large plastic or paper letters, and materials for making letters, such as yarn, pipe cleaners, and play dough also should be available. A writing center can be creating in your room where children can go and experiment with different writing tools. And, of course, you should have a collection of alphabet books to read aloud and alphabet songs to teach the children.

Here are some things that you can do to help your children learn about letters:

• Encourage the children to notice that letters are all around them.
• Encourage the children to play with letters.
• Give children plastic alphabet tiles and encourage them to spell their names and other words they like.
• Say to the children, "See the letters on this keyboard? Press one and watch the letter come up on the screen."
• Play games with line segments where children try to guess which letter you are writing as you draw parts of the letter one at a time
• Allow children to experiment with letters, using magnetic letters on the chalkboard.
• Help the children write letters.

• Help the children learn the alphabet.

• Help the children hear the sounds the letter's can make.

The more children know about their world, the easier it is for them to read and learn when they get to school. You have an important role to play in helping children learn new information, ideas, and vocabulary and how to use this knowledge to become full participants in their own learning. You can help children to connect new information and ideas to what they already know and understand.

It is important for young children to be able to:

• Know about what things are and how they work.
• Learn information about the world around them.
• Extend their use of language and develop vocabulary.
• Develop children's abilities to figure things out and to solve problems.

Here are some things that you can do to help children build knowledge:

• Provide them with opportunities to develop concepts by exploring and working with familiar classroom equipment and materials in a variety of ways. and materials in a variety of ways.

  • Children learn about substances and changes in substances by cooking.
  • Children learn about plants by planting seeds and taking care of the growing plants.
  • Children learn about social situations and interactions through real interactions and dramatic play.

• Share informational books.

  • Children enjoy learning about their world. They enjoy looking at books about things of interest to them perhaps how plants grow, how baby animals develop, or how vehicles carry people and things. Fortunately, many wonderful informational books are available today books with spectacular photographs or illustrations and descriptions that children can understand easily.

• Teach the children new words and concepts. Explain new vocabulary in the books that you read with them. Teach them and name all of the things in the classroom. In everyday talk with children, introduce words and concepts that they may not know, for example, beauty or fairness.

• Have children write, draw, build, and engage in dramatic play. These experiences will help the children to incorporate what they are learning with what they already know.

• Take the children on field trips. Any time children go some place, especially some place new to them, they can learn something. Even if it is just a walk around the block, children can learn something new if you talk with them. Point out things they might not notice. Explain events that are taking place. Answer the questions the children have and praise them for looking and learning. Before you go to a place the children have never been, such as a zoo or a museum, discuss what they will be seeing and learning. After the trip, have the children talk about their experiences.

• Provide a variety of materials for your children to explore. For example, wire, cardboard, water, tubes, tissue paper, and funnels.

• Invite visitors to your classroom.

  • Classroom visitors can teach your children a great deal. They can bring interesting objects or animals to talk about with the children. Visitors can talk about their jobs or their hobbies or show pictures of faraway places they have seen or tell stories about life long ago.

Many children enter preschool with some knowledge of numbers and counting. They can count five to ten objects accurately and can also read some numbers. But many other children have not developed this knowledge. These children in particular need many opportunities to learn the words for numbers, to count things, and to learn to read and write numbers.

You can help your children to learn about numbers and counting in many ways, including these informal ways:

• Make pointing to and counting objects part of your daily routines.

  • As you pass out the juice cups at snack time, point and count the cups; as you pass out pieces of paper for an art project, point to the paper and count the pieces; count the children's boots as you help take them off; count the stairs as the children walk down them.

• As you point and count, get the children to count with you. Children need to hear and practice things a lot in order to learn them.

• Help the children learn to answer the "how many?" question.

• Children like to point to and count their fingers, their legs, and their ears. Help them do that.

Here are some other activities that you can use to help the children with numbers and counting:

• Use different types of macaroni. Encourage them to sort the different types and then count them.

• Have materials on a choice shelf such as rubber teddy bears and colored cotton balls.

• Give children rulers and let them measure different things around the room.

• Teach the children counting songs and rhymes. You can play counting games with many different actions such as jumping and clapping. As children learn number words, they can count more actions.

• As you and the children sing counting and rhyming songs you can add and take off felt board pieces that represent objects in the song.

Here are some ways that you can help your children learn to recognize and write numbers:

• When they play with number puzzles, encourage them to say the numbers as they put the pieces in the puzzles.
• Have them include numbers in the pictures that they draw and in the words and "stories" that they write. For example, "What's the street number for your house that you drew?" "Wow, you wrote a long story. Can you number all of those pages?"
• Read and discuss number and counting books, pointing and counting the objects on each page.
• Encourage the children to make their own counting picture books by cutting and pasting pictures of objects on pieces of paper or by using stickers. The children can count the objects and write the number of the total on each page.
• Keep pencils, crayons and paper around the room so that the children can make lists.

In addition to learning about counting and writing numbers, young children need experiences that will help them to learn words and ideas that are particularly important to their future success in arithmetic and mathematics. You can help children by

• Using words such as same, different, more than, less than, and one more as you compare groups of objects.
• Naming the first, second, third, fourth, and last items when you talk about things in a line or a series. For example, when cooking, ask the children, "What do you think the first ingrediant will be? Ok, what is the second thing we should add to the bowl?"
• Using location words: in back of, beside, next to, between.
• Teaching them to learn to recognize, name, and draw different shapes, and by combining some shapes to make new or bigger shapes.
• Making comparisons between objects: taller than, smaller than.
• Measuring things first with measures such as string or strips of paper and then with rulers, scales and measuring cups and discussing why we need to measure things.
• Arranging groups of objects according to size—from largest to smallest.
• Helping them learn to copy patterns and to predict what will come next.
• Matching objects that are alike.
• Describing similarities and differences among objects.
• Sorting objects into groups by a given feature (the same color, the same shape) or by class (animals, cars, buildings). Discuss why the groups of objects are the same.

The more you know about children's academic, social, and emotional development, the more able you will be to meet their needs. Information about how well the children are progressing helps you to plan your teaching. You want the children in your care to feel successful and confident, but you also want to offer experiences that will help them to develop further. In addition, through initial screening and by checking the children's progress, you can identify those children who need special help or who face extra challenges.

Here are some ways that you can keep track of children's progress:

• Observe them daily. Watch as they play with each other, respond to your directions, participate in activities, and use language to communicate.
• Collect samples of their drawings, paintings, and writing.
• Keep notes about what they say and do.
• Encourage them to talk about their own progress.
• Regularly assess their progress so that your instruction will meet their needs.
• Talk with parents and caregivers. Ask them what they have observed at home. Tell them about their children's strengths. Let them know about any concerns you may have.

Also, remember to talk often with the children about what they are doing. Be sure to focus on their strengths—what they can do and the progress they have made. This will help them build confidence and motivation for learning.

As a teacher, you and the children's parents and caregivers are partners in helping to get the children ready for future school success. Good communication with parents and caregivers can build support for and strengthen the important work that you are doing in the classroom.

It is important for you to communicate with parents and caregivers because:

• They will have a better understanding of how you are helping to prepare their children for success in school.
• They will learn how well their children are progressing in developing the building blocks of learning.
• They will learn ways in which they can help their children at home.
• You will have a better understanding of the background and experiences of the children.
• The children will see that the adults in their life care about them and are interested in their learning and development.

Here are some ways that you can communicate with parents and caregivers:

• Talk with them as they deliver and pick up their children.
• Send home newsletters, notes, or e-mails to inform them of what their children are learning in your classroom.
• Schedule regular meetings to let them know how their children are progressing—both the areas of strength and the areas that could use more support at home.

Encourage parents and caregivers to:

• Talk with children during daily routines such as when riding in the car and during meal and bath times.
• Help children to name objects in their environment (labeling).
• Read and reread stories.
• Recount experiences and describe ideas that are important to them.
• Visit libraries and museums.
• Provide opportunities for children to draw and print, using markers, crayons, and pencils.

Share ideas with them about activities that they can do at home to build on what you are doing in the classroom.

• Invite parents and caregivers to visit your classroom.

Here are some terms that you may encounter as you read more about early childhood education.

Alliteration The same consonant sounds at the beginning of words in a sentence or a line of poetry. For example, the sound of P in Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Alphabetic principle The understanding that written letters systematically represent sounds. For example, the word big has three letters and three sounds.

Big books Oversized books that allow children to see the print and pictures as we read them.

Cognitive development Children's developing knowledge, skills, and dispositions, which help them to think about and understand the world around them.

Decoding The translation of the letters in written words into recognizable sounds and combining these sounds into meaningful words.

Emergent literacy The view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful literacy-related activities.

Environmental print Printed materials that are a part of everyday life. They include signs, billboards, labels, and business logos.

Explicit instruction Teaching children in a systematic and sequential manner.

Experimental writing Young children experiment with writing by creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles and marks on paper.

Invented spelling Phonemic-based spelling where children create their own nonconventional spelling.

Letter knowledge The ability to identify the names and shapes of the letters of the alphabet.

Journals Writing books in which young learners scribble, draw, and use their own spellings to write about their experiences.

Literacy Includes all the activities involved in speaking, listening, reading, writing, and appreciating both spoken and written language.

Phonemes The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form words. For example, the word hit is made up of three phonemes (h-i-t) and differs by one phoneme from the words pit, hip and hot.

Phonics The relationships between the sounds of spoken language and the individual letters or groups of letters that represent those sounds in written language.

Phonological awareness The ability to notice and work with the sounds in language. Phonological awareness activities can involve work with alliteration, rhymes, and seperating individual syllables into sounds.

Print awareness The knowledge that printed words carry meaning and that reading and writing are ways to obtain ideas and information. A young child's sensitivity to print is one of the first steps toward reading.

Scaffolded instruction Instruction in which adults build upon what children to per-form more complex tasks.

Sight vocabulary Words that a reader recognizes without having to sound them out.

Vocabulary The words we must know in order to communicate effectively. Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.

Word recognition Using any one of a number of strategies such as recognition by sight or decoding so as to figure out their meaning.

* This publication is also available from the ED Pubs Online Ordering System (http://www.ed.gov/about/ordering.jsp)

Here are some books that can provide you with more information about early childhood education.

Adams, M. J., B.R. Foorman, I. Lundberg, and T. Beeler (1997). Phonemic Awareness in Young Children: A Classroom Curriculum. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Anderson, R. C., E.H. Hiebert, J.A. Scott, and I.A.G. Wilkinson (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, Ill.: Center for the Study of Reading, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.

Burns, M. S., P. Griffin, and C. Snow (Eds.). (1999). Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children's Reading Success. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Dickinson, D. K. and P.O. Tabors (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Hart, B. and T.R. Risley (1995). Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Neuman, S. B., C. Copple, and S. Bredekamp (2000). Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Neuman, S. B. and D.K. Dickinson (2001). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press.

Schickedanz, J. (1999). Much More than the ABCs. Washington, D.C.: NAEYC.

Snow, C. E., M.S. Burns, and P. Griffin (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.