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Style Guide for Authors and Editors (page
5 of 6)
A colon may be used to introduce a list or series. Do not capitalize
the first word after a colon (unless it would be capitalized for
other reasons such as beginning a sentence or a subtitle). Do
not use a colon to introduce a series of complete sentences. Either
change the colon to a period or edit the list so that it is no
longer made up of complete sentences.
Incorrect:
The cells were prepared as follows: Strain 12B was grown in
G broth. The cells were harvested by centrifugation. The pellet
was dissolved in solution Y.
Correct:
The cells were prepared as follows. Strain 12 B was grown in
G broth.
Incorrect:
The cells were harvested by centrifugation. The pellet was dissolved
in solution Y.
Correct:
The cells were prepared as follows: strain 12B was grown in
G broth, the cells were harvested by centrifugation, and the
pellet was dissolved in solution Y.
If any item in a list includes a complete sentence that gives
information about that item only, either edit out the colon or
put the additional information in parentheses.
Incorrect:
This conclusion is based on the following results: 1) The mapping
of the mutations between 0.13 and 0.23 map unit. This indicates
that they lie within a 1.2-kbp region. 2) The presence of the
Nif phenotype in all the mutants.
Correct:
This conclusion is based on the following results: 1) the mapping
of the mutations between 0.13 and 0.23 map unit (this indicates
that they lie within a 1.2-kbp region) and 2) the presence of
the Nif phenotype.
Do not use a colon if the items in the list complete the sentence
grammatically.
Incorrect:
XYZ medium contained: A, B, and C.
Correct:
XYZ medium contained A, B, and C.
Place a comma:
- after all items linked by "and" or "or" in a series, including
the item before the conjunction.
- after state when city is mentioned in text (In Dallas, Texas,
in 1995...)
- after date that gives month, day, and year in text. (The test
given January 1, 1997, showed that . . .)
- after an introductory phrase of five or more words. A comma
can be used after fewer words if necessary to clarify the meaning.
- after i.e. or e.g.
Avoid in scientific writing. Their use is for sudden breaks in
thought that change the sentence structure or amplify and expand
a phrase in the main clause. Try parentheses instead.
Use the en dash to connect continuing, or inclusive, numbers
(e.g., dates, time, or reference numbers). Use the hyphen, not
the en dash, between numbers that are not inclusive (e.g., phone
numbers and grant numbers). (CMS)
Use between compound adjectives when one element is an open compound
or when at least two elements are hyphenated compounds; or, in
complex modifying phrases that include suffices and prefixes and
hyphens.
New York–Boston connector
In complex modifying phrases that include suffixes or prefixes,
hyphens and en dashes are sometimes used to avoid ambiguity.
non-group–specific blood
manic-depressive–like symptoms
For addresses and affiliations, footnote symbols are used in
the following order: *,†,‡,§,¶, #. They are doubled if more are
needed. Footnotes in text use superscript numbers.
Tables and figures use superscript letters. (ASM) All information
at the bottom of a table must be footnoted, but all abbreviations
may be in one footnote.
note: see ASM Style Manual for a list of abbreviations
that may be used without introduction in a table.
Terms formed by combining two or more words or elements of words
may be open (with a space between them), hyphenated, or solid
(as one word). If in doubt about how to treat a compound, consult
Webster's Dictionary or ASM.
Common and unambiguous adjectives need not be hyphenated.
food safety issues, foodborne illness study, public health
nurse
Do not hyphenate after an adverb ending in -ly even when used
in a compound modifier preceding the word modified.
The rapidly rising temperature caused . . .
Do not hyphenate foreign phrases that are printed open in other
circumstances (e.g., in vitro translation, in situ protein synthesis,
in vitro-stimulated growth, in situ-synthesized proteins) (ASM).
Do no hyphenate CDC mailstops.
Mailstop C12
Emphasis: do not introduce italics, underlining, or bold face
type for emphasis. Use only as indicated in this style guide.
Foreign words and phrases: some foreign words and phrases have
become part of standard English usage and do not need to be italicized,
unless not using italics would be confusing. These terms include:
in vivo
in vitro
falciparum (in falciparum malaria)
et al.
Nested parentheses sometimes appear in chemical names. Follow
author (ASM).
(x(yy)x)
If a designation that already contains parentheses must be enclosed
within parentheses, do not change the designation. Instead, use
brackets in place of the outer set of parentheses (ASM).
Incorrect:
another strain (strain 123(pXYZ))
Incorrect:
another strain (strain 123[pXYZ])
Correct:
another strain [strain 123(pXYZ)]
In circumstances other than mathematical expressions, the inner
set of parentheses should be changed to brackets. (ASM)
Incorrect:
The procedure we used [the Lowry method (12)] . . .
Correct:
The procedure we used (the Lowry method [12]) . . .
In numbered lists, use a single parenthesis to avoid confusion
with references (CBE).
Three procedures were instituted hospitalwide: 1) handwashing,
which is associated with fewer nosocomial infections; 2) isolation
precautions, according to established guidelines; and 3) mandatory
screening of staff.
Use periods in in-text abbreviations.
U.S. citizens from Washington, D.C., were . . .
et al.
Email addresses or URLs in references are not followed by a period.
6 months' gestation
Legionnaires' disease
woolsorters' disease
Year indications are not possessive.
1960s, not 1960's
Diseases or syndromes named after a person or place are generally
not possessive:
Bright disease
Chagas disease
Down syndrome
Hodgkin disease
Kaposi sarcoma
Kawasaki syndrome
Lyme disease
Marfan syndrome
Minimata disease
Reye syndrome
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Terms formed by combining two or more words or elements of words
may be open (with a space between them), hyphenated, or solid
(as one word). If in doubt about how to treat a compound, consult
Webster's Dictionary or ASM.
Following are a list of common prefixes. They should always be
solid except as noted below.
| ante- |
inter- |
over- |
sub- |
| anti- |
intra- |
post- |
super- |
| co- |
macro- |
pre- |
supra- |
| counter- |
micro- |
pro- |
trans- |
| de- |
mid- |
pseudo- |
ultra- |
| extra- |
multi- |
re- |
un- |
| infra- |
non- |
semi- |
|
Exceptions:
- before a capital letter (un-American)
- before an abbreviation or acronym (non-mRNA )
- before a numeral (pre-1970)
- to avoid confusion with a similar unhyphenated word (re-cover,
re-creation)
- to avoid a confusing meaning, as in immunologic terms such
as anti-rabbit, anti-goat, anti-mouse, anti-human. "Goat anti-rabbit
IgG" means goat antiserum against rabbit IgG, not goat IgG
that is antirabbit.
Even if letters are doubled, common prefixes are usually not
joined by hyphens.
antiinflammatory
intraabdominal
nonnegotiable
posttraumatic
Place commas around nonrestrictive clauses (extra information).
The samples, which James analyzed, had been stored for 2 weeks.
(Only one set of samples is being discussed; therefore, the
clause "which James analyzed" is not necessary for defining
the samples.)
Do not place commas around restrictive clauses (necessary information).
The samples that James analyzed had been stored for 2 weeks.
(More than one set of samples is being discussed. The clause
"that James analyzed" defines the noun "samples," telling which
samples were analyzed.)
- are used to separate independent clauses containing commas.
- are used between two parts of a compound sentence when the
independent clauses are not joined by a conjunction.
- separate items in a series if internal punctuation is present.
The following suffixes are joined without a hyphen: -fold, -hood,
-less, -like, -wise, unless doing so
- creates an unclear or excessively long word
- triples a consonant (bell-like)
- follows a proper noun (Whitman-like)
- follows a number and for decimal fractions, e.g., 10-fold;
2.5-fold (ASM)
Follow the dictionary, ASM, or CSM to determine whether terms
are written as one word, two words, or hyphenated. The following
is a list of common terms.
| acute-phase serum samples |
groundwater |
| age group (2 words) |
handwashing |
| antibody-capture ELISA |
healthcare |
| antibody-positive children |
immunodeficiency, not immune deficiency |
| back to back (adv), back-to-back
(adj) |
life cycle
|
| bedbug |
lifestyle |
| bed net (n), bed-net (adj) |
live-born |
| birthplace |
long term (n), long-term (adj) |
| birth weight (2 words) |
long-standing |
| bloodborne |
managed care (n, adj) |
| bottle-fed |
needle-stick |
| breast-feed, breast-fed |
online (adv, adj) |
| case-fatality rate |
overestimate (most over- or under-
prefixes are solid) |
| case-patient |
person-to-person transmission, but transmission
was person to person |
| chickenpox |
postmortem |
| childbearing |
postpartum |
| child care (n), child-care (adj) |
readout |
| coauthor |
schoolchildren |
| convalescent-phase serum samples |
seawater |
| co-worker |
snowblindness |
| cut off (v), cutoff (adj) |
stand by (v), standby (adj) |
| cross-reaction, cross-infection (see CMS for
hyphenated "cross" words) |
stillborn |
| database |
short term (n), short-term (adj) |
| dataset |
sub-Saharan |
| day care (n), day-care (adj) |
T cell (n), T-cell (adj) |
| desktop publishing |
tick-borne |
| email |
toxic shock syndrome |
| en route |
under way |
| enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
vector-borne |
| fast food (n), fast-food (adj) |
waste water |
| finger-prick, finger-stick |
waterborne |
| follow-up (n), follow up (v) |
Web site, Web page |
| foodborne |
well-being |
| food handlers |
well-known person, but he is well known |
| food handling (n), food-handling (adj) |
work-up (n), work up (v) |
| fresh water (n), freshwater (adj) |
workplace |
| Gram stain |
worldwide |
| gram negative, gram positive (hyphenate
if used as an adjective) |
|
The virgule often implies duality (AMA).
The physician/patient experience implies the physician and
patient are one and the same.
The physician-patient relationship implies two different persons.
"or" or "and" should replace the virgule; avoid and/or.
He or she, not he/she
Father and son bowling league, not father/son bowling league
Identify references in text, tables, and legends as they appear
consecutively by Arabic numerals in parentheses.
"Editor" is spelled out in references.
Use postal abbreviations in parentheses for states for location
of publisher (omit DC after Washington), but write out states
when given as meeting locations.
Follow Uniform
Requirements noting in particular the following:
Abstracts should not contain references because abstracts need
to stand alone.
Abstracts can be cited in the references. If the abstract has
only a page number, cite the name of the booklet (e.g., Program
and Abstracts).
Galil K, Singleton
R, Levine O, Fitzgerald M, Ajello G, Bulkow L, et al. High prevalence
of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) carriage among
Alaska Natives despite widespread use of Hib-conjugate vaccine.
In: Abstracts of the 35th Infectious Disease Society of America;
San Francisco, California; 1997 Sept 13–16; Abstract 421. Alexandria,
Virginia: Infectious Disease Society of America; 1997.
Number any references to articles in press and place in the references.
Include year. For articles submitted to be published, place in
text as for personal communications and unpublished data (W.W.
Lamb, submitted for pub.).
article
not in English
If translated, the translation goes in square brackets, and a
language designator is added to the end of the reference.
Examples:
Ellingsen AE, Wilhelmsen I. Sykdomsangst blant medisin-og
jusstudenter. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2002;122:785–7.
[CD-ROM burning of CT scan images: initial experience]. J Radiol
2003;84:1953–9. French.
Dissertations can be used as references; theses cannot. Cite
theses in the text, giving all information that would normally
be included in a reference. International variations in terminology
occur; the primary distinction is whether or not the work is published.
Follow Uniform
Requirements.
Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases.
Emerg Infect Dis [serial online] 1995 Jan–Mar [cited 1996 Jun
5];1. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/eid.htm
Use Index
Medicus journal abbreviations; spell out the journal name
if it is not in Index Medicus.
Spell out the full name of the organization if it is the author,
or just put title with no author. Never use anonymous or "no author
given."
World Health Organization, not WHO
Place in text
(D.E. Berg, pers. comm.)
(D. Stantio, unpub. data)
ProMed
Citation
Lipkin I. West Nile-like virus: PCR primers and protocols.
ProMed. October 13, 1999. Accessed at: http://www.promedmail.org,
archive number: 19991013.1826.
The following cities should be used without
the state or country name when listed in references:
| Atlanta |
Cincinnati |
Madrid |
Pittsburgh |
| Amsterdam |
Cleveland |
Mexico City |
Prague |
| Baltimore |
Copenhagen |
Miami |
Rome |
| Basel |
Dallas |
Milan |
San Francisco |
| Beijing |
Denver |
Minneapolis |
Seattle |
| Belgrade |
Detroit |
Montreal |
St. Louis |
| Berlin |
Dublin |
Moscow |
Stockholm |
| Bonn |
Edinburgh |
Munich |
Tokyo |
| Boston |
Frankfurt |
Naples |
Toronto |
| Brussels |
Geneva |
New Orleans |
Turin |
| Budapest |
Houston |
New York |
Uppsala |
| Buenos Aires |
Kiev |
Oslo |
Vienna |
| Cairo |
Leningrad |
Oxford |
Warsaw |
| Cambridge* |
London |
Paris |
Zurich |
| Chicago |
Los Angeles |
Philadelphia |
|
*Note, Cambridge, Massachusetts should be listed with the state.
In references, omit D.C. from Washington, D.C.
(e.g., USA Today) Avoid. Suggest that the author use a primary
source.
The name can differ.
1992–present Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1980–1991 Centers for Disease Control
1970–1979 Center for Disease Control
bacteria
Italicize species, variety or subspecies, genus, and family when
used in the singular. Do not italicize or capitalize genus name
when used in the plural.
Listeria monocytogenes is; Listeria is a ubiquitous
organism.
Listeria are; salmonellae; mycobacteria
If a paper is about several species of the same genus, the
genus needs to be spelled out only in the title and at first
use in the abstract, text, tables, and figures. It may subsequently
be abbreviated for other species. (ASM)
"We studied Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. putida, and
P. fluorescens."
Do not italicize the name of a class, order, or tribe. (AMA)
Exception:
The genus Salmonella consists of only
two species: S. enterica (divided into six subspecies)
and S. bongori. Most salmonellae encountered in EID
will be serotypes (serovars) belonging to S. enterica.
On first mention, put the genus and species in italics, followed
by initially capped serotype in Roman (e.g., Salmonella
enterica serotype Paratyphi; on 2nd mention, just put
S. Paratyphi). Serotypes belonging to other subspecies are
designated by their antigenic formulae following the subspecies
name (e.g., S. enterica subspecies diarizonae
60:k:z or S. IIIb 60:k:z
genes
Virus genes
Many are written in italics and are traditionally three letters,
lowercase. No definitive rules exist for naming such genes, and
you will see them described in a variety of different ways.
src gene, myc gene
Bacterial genes
Are always written in italics (or underlined).
lacZ gene
Fungal genes
Are generally the same as virus genes (i.e., three italicized
letters, lowercase). With a multigene family, a numeric notation
is included. Where different alleles of the same gene are to be
noted, the terminology allows for a superscript.
Exceptions: Mitochondrial genes add an “mt” prefix to the three-
or four-letter gene, which may or may not be in lowercase. Drug
target genes are all capped, no italics.
msg1, msg2, msg3 (multigene)
xyz1 (different alleles of same gene)
mtLSU (mitochondrial genes)
DHPS and DHFR (drug target genes)
Human genes
Are all cap, no italics. May be all uppercase Latin letters or
a combination of uppercase letters and Arabic numbers, ideally
no longer than six characters. Initial character is always a letter.
No subscript, superscript, Roman numerals, or Greek letters are
used.
Comparison of animal versus human terms: You may have a similar
gene for humans and for mice. For example, AMA Manual of Style
lists (p. 403) the following genes:
β2-microglobulin: for mice: gene is B2m;
for humans, it is B2M.
CD5 antigen: Cd5 [mice] but CD5 [human]
List of human gene names is maintained by nome@galton.ucl.ack.uk
and is available at www.gene.ucl.ac.uk. Note: underlining of names
at latter site does NOT indicate italics.
Proteins
Proteins, the combinations of amino acids that make up plants
and animals, including humans, often have the same name as a gene
but are not italicized and are always initial capped. For example,
one of the outer surface proteins of Borrelia burgdorferi
is named outer surface protein A. It is encoded by ospA
(the gene), and the protein is OspA.
Proteins often have common names, e.g., β-galactosidase
is the gene product of lacZ.
How to tell difference between proteins and genes?
If term is combined with one of following words, it is probably
describing a gene:
Promoter (e.g., P2 core promoter [of myc gene];
promoters are parts of genes, not proteins
Terminator, operator, attenuator sites: refer to genes
[ASM Style Manual, p. 34]
If term is combined with one of following words, it is probably
describing a protein:
Repress—a protein represses, a gene doesn’t.
React—a protein reacts, a gene doesn’t
Heterodimerization
Elevated levels of ____ [Note: It is common usage
error for authors to put “elevated myc” when they mean: “elevated
levels of myc.”]
Another common usage error: italicizing MMR. This term, which
means “mismatch repair,” is never a gene, just an abbreviation
for a process. But you may see “Mice with specific alterations
in a number of MMR genes have been developed…” Correct
way to state: “Mice with specific alterations in a number of MMR
genes have been developed.”
viruses
If needed, taxonomic designation of a virus should be mentioned
at the beginning of a manuscript. Subsequent reference to the
virus should use the common name or accepted acronym.
Mayaro virus is a member of the family Togaviridae in
the genus Alphavirus. Any virus in the family is a togavirus,
any virus in this particular genus is an alphavirus.
Incorrect:
We isolated an Alphavirus from this wombat.
Correct:
We isolated a member of the genus Alphavirus from this
wombat.
Correct:
We isolated an alphavirus from this wombat.
For information on this virus nomenclature style, adopted by
several international organizations, see
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Virus taxonomy:
classification and nomenclature of viruses: seventh report of
the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Van Regenmortel
MHV, chairman. New York: Academic Press;2000.
change
British spelling to American
analog, not analogue
analyze, not analyse
anesthesia, not anaesthesia
color, not colour
estradiol, not oestradiol
homolog, not homologue
orthopedics, not orthopaedics
titer, not titre
Exceptions:
aerobic
anaerobic
proper names (The XYZ Programme, S. faecalis, N.
gonorrhoeae)
commonly
misspelled words
(See also Hyphens for list of terms written as one word, two
words, or hyphenated.)
acknowledgment, not acknowledgement
Cameroon, not Cameroun
Côte d'Ivoire, not Ivory Coast
Dhaka, not Dacca
Escherichia coli O157 use the letter O, not the number
0.
Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)
helminthic, not helmintic
hemorrhage
inoculation
judgment, not judgement
leukocyte, not leucocyte
mucus (n), mucous (adj)
occurred, occurrence
omit, omitted
precede
proceed
protozoon (n, s), protozoa (n, pl) protozoan (adj)
repellent
supernatant, not supernate
villus (n), villous (adj)
For tests named after a person, avoid the possessive unless
the term is always written in the possessive.
Fisher exact test
Pearson correlation coefficient
Sorenson correlation coefficient
Student t test
Are closed up when they indicate mathematical operations.
In all other contexts, a space should be printed on each side
of the symbol. (ASM)
a probability of <0.01 (note: always use 0 before decimal
in p value)
a >25% drop, but 45% ± 2%
–70ºC
between nucleotides –55 and +19
G+C content
densities of <103
magnification of x200, but 4 x 106
10× lens objective [note: math font ×]
the MIC was <8.0 g/mL
>10-fold, greater than fourfold
Use words, not mathematical symbols, in nonmathematical expressions
in text. Disregard this rule in the bodies of tables. (ASM)
Tumor cells plus IFN injections, not tumor cells + IFN injections
Exception: >, <, may be used in text.
Do not allow a mathematical symbol to stand for the main verb
in a clause.(ASM)
Incorrect:
When p <0.005. . .
Correct:
When p was <0.005. . .
Incorrect:
densities <103
Correct:
densities of <103
Check ASM and Reporting Statistics in Medicine for large glossaries.
chi square (noun; chi-square, adjective); if not spelled
out, use Greek Chi symbol
Mann-Whitney U test
Wilcoxon matched-pairs, Wilcoxon rank -sum test, Wilcoxon
signed-ranks test, Log-Rank analysis, Wilcoxon 2-sample test,
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for goodness-of-fit
Epi Info 5
SAS statistical package
p=0.05 (lower case p, no italics; put zero before decimal)
Use the % symbol within a sentence. Begin a sentence with "percent."
Put a space between a number and its measure (5 mL, 5 M).
Exception:
No space before the percent or degree symbols.
5%, 70ºC
Follow ASM style for figures and tables. If there is only one
figure or table, do not number it. Tables must be created with
the word-processing program's table editor.
Tables and figures should be self-explanatory; therefore, spell
out terms even if introduced in the text.
Place table heading above, not below, the table. Capitalize the
first letter only. Do not make into a sentence; do not add a period.
Place figure legend within the text, not below the figure. Capitalize
the first letter only. The legend may begin with a sentence or
a sentence fragment. Add a period.
Use the following symbols, in the order shown, to indicate footnotes.
*
†
‡
§
¶
#
If there are more than 6 footnotes, use double (e.g., **, ††,
etc.) symbols. There is no space between a footnote symbol and
the footnote.
- Stack footnotes.
- Cite all table abbreviations in one footnote.
- Place a period at the end of footnotes.
- Footnote symbols need not be repeated in like boxhead entries.
(ASM)
- Convert unwieldy table data to footnotes.
Tables should be arranged with like data reading downward (e.g.,
organism names, virus titers). Do not use landscape orientation;
use portrait.
Need not be repeated in every row but should be given once in
the boxhead (in parentheses and abbreviated if possible). The
unit of measure usually appears after the thing it measures, not
necessarily at the end of the boxhead.
Use SI units or other
common units of measure.
Animal wt (g) during treatment
Common units of measure may be abbreviated without introduction
if used with numbers or in tables but not alone in text.
30 ng, but protein measured in nanograms
Common units of measure, SI
units. See AMA for a complete list.
versus
Use "versus" in text (this method versus that one); "vs." in
statistics (2.5 vs. 3.4); and "v" in legal citations (Roe v. Wade).
dialyze blood, not animals or humans
transfuse blood, not animals or humans
In a noncount noun in a prepositional phrase with "none," the
verb plurality is determined by the object of the preposition.
None of the blood was...
None of the patients are participating.
A number (total, group) of persons are.
The number (total, group) reported is 25.
Seventy-eight percent is the largest percentage reported.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is...
A quantity indicated by a unit of measure is singular, even when
the units are spelled out. (ASM)
Twelve milliliters was injected.
. . .10 mg was added
. . .5 mL was injected
. . .10 days has passed
. . .220 cpm of radioactivity was detected
Exceptions:
Non-absolute or informal units
. . .10 drops were added
Do not allow a mathematical symbol to stand for the main verb
in a clause.(ASM)
Incorrect:
When p <0.005 . . .
Correct:
When p was <0.005 . . .
Medical jargon often uses nouns as verbs. Avoid.
Incorrect:
was electrophoresed
Correct:
underwent electrophoresis
Incorrect:
The patient was biopsied.
Correct:
A biopsy was performed.
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