Style Guide for Authors and
Editors (page 3 of 6)
(Note: parenthetical acronyms refer to style guides listed in Other
Resources )
A sentence can begin with an abbreviation. It cannot begin with
a figure or symbol.
WBC count was . . .
Alpha (not the symbol) particles are. . .(CMS)
The article "a" or "an" should match the sound of the abbreviation
or acronym, not the word for which it stands. (AMA)
an HMO report, but a health maintenance organization
However, articles are often omitted in front of abbreviations.
CDC, not the CDC
Avoid too many abbreviations. Use standard abbreviations only;
do not make up abbreviations. Spell out on first mention and use
only if acronym occurs at least five times.
If an organization's name has been translated into English, the
organization's original acronym can be used on the second use
of the organization's name even if the organization is not mentioned
five times.
Abstracts may contain abbreviations after a single mention. (ASM)
See ASM for complete list of abbreviations that need not be introduced,
for example:
AIDS
bp
DNA
EDTA
HIV
RNA
The following are abbreviations that must be introduced but are
allowed after initial mention (see ASM for complete list):
AZT
CFU
CNS
CSF
ECG, not EKG
ELISA
Government agencies (PAHO, WHO, CDC, WTO, FAO, USDA, FDA, APHIS,
EPA)
HACCP
HPS
HUS
IFA (immunofluorescence assay)
IgG, IgM
IL
MDRTB (not MDR-TB)
PCR
RT-PCR
TB
VRE
Dates – Spell out months in text. In tables, figures (AMA),
and references (UR), abbreviate months using the first three
letters.
SI
Units
Use SI units for units of measure (AMA), for example:
| centimeter |
cm |
| cubic millimeter |
mm3 |
| dalton |
Da |
| deciliter |
dL |
| gram |
g |
| kilodalton |
kDa |
| kilogram |
kg |
| liter |
L |
| meter |
m |
| microgram |
µg |
| microliter |
µL |
| milligram |
mg |
| milliliter |
mL |
| millimeter |
mm |
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Affiliations
Use the following symbols, in the order shown, for affiliations.
*
†
‡
§
¶
#
If there are more than 6 affiliations, use double (e.g., **, ††,
etc.) symbols.
Generally, avoid using appendixes; however sometimes they serve
a useful purpose for data that cannot be presented easily as a
table or a figure. In these cases, appendixes are cited in the
text as a table or figure would be cited. (e.g., Appendix 1) and
are usually placed at the end of an article, before the references.
If the appendix cites references but contains no figures or
tables, it should be placed before the reference list for the
article, and the references should be sequential with those
in the text.
If the appendix contains figures or tables, but cites no references,
the appendix should be placed after the text and text reference
list, and the figures and tables should be numbered separately
in the appendix and the text (e.g., Appendix Table, Appendix
Figure).
If the appendix has figures or tables and references, the appendix
should be placed after the text and text reference list, and
both the figures and tables and the references should have new
numbering (e.g., Appendix Figure 1, Appendix Table 1, and a
separate reference list beginning with reference 1).
Avoid unnecessary capitalization. Follow CMS.
Capitalize any word, including an article, following a colon
a) if it begins a full sentence, b) if it begins a subtitle, or
c) if it is the first word in a table stub (heading) or cell within
a table. This does not apply to subtitles in references (See Uniform
Requirements).
Do not capitalize accession number, and use the abbreviation
no. instead of number.
a.m., p.m. (ASM)
California encephalitis virus
Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
Ebola (named after the Ebola River in Zaire)
federal
formalin
Guinea worm disease
Gulf Coast
Internet
Legionnaires' disease
Mercurochrome
Pacific Coast
Simian immunodeficiency virus
Sin Nombre virus
Southeast Asia
Southern blot
St. Louis encephalitis virus
Suramin
Teflon
the Gambia, the Netherlands, The Hague
Gram stain, gram-negative, gram-positive (CBE)
Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus
Web page, Web site, the Web
West Africa (CMS)
Western equine encephalomyelitis virus
Western Hemisphere
Western blot
x-ray
Do not capitalize the following words, even when used as specific
designations, unless they are part of a title: case, group, series,
or patient.
The exact and complete titles of tests are capitalized. When
the word test appears with the name of a test that is in written
form and that is used as a survey or tool, the word test is capitalized.
For tests that involve a process, as is the case with most statistical
tests, the word test is not capitalized. (AMA)
For a list of statistical tests and capitalization, see AMA Manual
of Style.
Capitalize the first initial of all words except articles, coordinating
conjunctions, and prepositions (regardless of length). (ASM)
Exceptions:
Lowercase "to" as a preposition but capitalize as an infinitive.
Ability of Gene xyz To Induce Susceptibility to Penicillin
Lowercase "that" as a subordinating conjunction but capitalize
as a relative pronoun.
Evidence That Penicillin-Resistant Strains Are Common
Strains that Are Resistant to Penicillin
Capitalize both words in hyphenated compound adjectives. (ASM)
Penicillin-Resistant Gonorrhea
Titles of books and journals are neither italicized nor placed
within quotation marks.
Lowercase specific epithets in the scientific names of organisms
in titles as you would in running text: Escherichia coli,
NOT Escherichia Coli. (ASM)
Trade names should generally be capitalized. If a name is not
found in dictionary or style manuals, follow author. Do not use
™ and ® with trade names.
words derived
from proper nouns
Most words derived from proper nouns are not capitalized
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Spell out names of states and U.S. territories and possessions
when they stand alone or follow a county name. (AMA)
Use postal abbreviations in references, addresses, or product
identification.
XYZ product (ABC Co., Atlanta, GA)
Abbreviate U.S. and U.K. as adjective; write out as noun.
When using in a location or address, use USA and UK.
U.S. citizens
Citizens of the United States
The following cities should be used without the state or country
name when listed in references:
| Atlanta |
Cincinnati |
Madrid |
Pittsburgh |
| Amsterdam |
Cleveland |
Mexico City |
Prague |
| Baltimore |
Copenhagen |
Miami |
Rome |
| Basel |
Dallas |
Milan |
San Francisco |
| Beijing |
Denver |
Minneapolis |
Seattle |
| Belgrade |
Detroit |
Montreal |
St. Louis |
| Berlin |
Dublin |
Moscow |
Stockholm |
| Bonn |
Edinburgh |
Munich |
Tokyo |
| Boston |
Frankfurt |
Naples |
Toronto |
| Brussels |
Geneva |
New Orleans |
Turin |
| Budapest |
Houston |
New York |
Uppsala |
| Buenos Aires |
Kiev |
Oslo |
Vienna |
| Cairo |
Leningrad |
Oxford |
Warsaw |
| Cambridge* |
London |
Paris |
Zurich |
| Chicago |
Los Angeles |
Philadelphia |
|
*Note, Cambridge, Massachusetts should be listed with the state.
In references, omit D.C. from Washington, D.C.
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Use SI units or other conventional units
of measure (AMA). Some medical measurements, however, follow other
conventions.
| height (meters) |
blood pressure (mm Hg) |
| weight (kilograms) |
oxygen pressure (cm H20) |
| volume (liters) |
blood and clinical chemistry |
| temperature (Celsius) |
|
To report both SI and conventional units, repeat the number
in parentheses along with the unit of measure.
20 mmol/L (20 meq/L)
Use commas in all numbers with four or more digits.
Exception:
Dates
2,000 people by 2002
factor VIII (Roman)
confidence
intervals
Use an en dash in a confidence interval.
(95% CI 0.8–1.6)
Displayed equations and text are not separated with punctuation.
Distance is calculated as follows:
D = x(y)
where D = distance, x = time, and y = rate
But if the same equation is run into text (i.e., not displayed),
use a comma.
Distance is calculated as D = x(y), where D = distance and...
In equations, single letter abbreviations and variables are
italicized; the surrounding parentheses are not. (ASM)
Word equations have initial capital letters and no end punctuation.
(Number of new cases/Number of people at risk)
Numerals should be used to express numbers in most circumstances
(AMA).
Exceptions:
- Numbers that begin a sentence, title, subtitle, or heading
- Common fractions
- Accepted usage such as idiomatic expressions
- Numbers used as pronouns and other uses of the number
one in running text
- Ordinals first through ninth
- Numbers spelled out in quotations or published titles
Examples:
- The relative risk of exposed participants was 3 times
that of the controls.
- In the second phase of the study, 3 of the investigators
administered the 5 tests to the 7 remaining participants.
- Five species were identified.
- The investigators compared a new laboratory method with
the standard one.
Mixed fractions
For less precise measurements, mixed fractions may be used
instead of decimals. These expressions usually involve time.
Example:
The patient was hospitalized for 5 1/2 days.
Measures of time
Measures of time are usually expressed as numerals. When dates
are provided, numerals should be used for day and year; the
month should be spelled out unless listed in a table.
Measures of temperature
Use the degree sign with Celsius measures of temperature.
Example:
The plates were cultured at 20°C.
Beginning of sentence, title, or heading
Use words for any number that begins a sentence, title, subtitle,
or heading. Rewording the sentence may be better.
Example:
Five species were identified.
When a unit of measure follows a number that begins a sentence,
it too must be written out, even if the same unit is abbreviated
elsewhere in the same sentence.
Example:
Two milligrams was administered on day 1, followed by 1 µg
on day 2.
Common fractions
Common fractions are expressed with words. Hyphens are used
only if the fraction modifies a noun.
Numbers used as pronouns
Spell out numbers when used as pronouns.
Accepted usage
Spell out numbers for generally accepted usage, such as idiomatic
expressions. "One" frequently appears in running text
without referring to a quantity and may appear awkward to the
reader if expressed as a numeral. When "one" may be
replaced by "a" or "a single" without changing
the meaning, the word one, rather than the numeral, is appropriate.
Ordinals
Ordinals generally express order or rank rather than quantity.
Ordinals first through ninth are spelled out. Ordinals greater
than ninth are expressed as numerals, except at the beginning
of sentence, title, or heading.
Exceptions:
Ordinals that are part of a series that includes an ordinal
greater than ninth
Combining numerals and words
Use a combination of numerals and words to express rounded
large numbers and consecutive numerical expressions.
Examples:
The disease affects 5 million to 6 million persons.
Study participants were given twenty 5-mL syringes.
Avoid unless necessary; use Arabic numbers followed by single
parentheses (to avoid confusion with references). (CBE)
Three conditions were met: 1) handwashing procedures, once
not strictly followed, were enforced; 2) isolation procedures
were instituted; and 3) staff were trained in additional preventive
measures.
Immediately follow the number, not the phrase.
The disease was found in 12 (50%) of the 24 children at the
picnic.
Limit to specific statistical meaning. In text, when followed
by a preposition, use "to."
from 18 to 20 years
from 5% to 10%
from 1984 to 1990
Use the en dash to connect percentages.
25%–35%
Repeat symbols in ranges, but do not repeat words. (AMA)
40ºC to 70ºC, 25% to 50%
The angles varied by five to six degrees.
Use colon (length:width, 2:1).
HIV-1, HIV-2 (Arabic)
HTLV-III (Roman)
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