|
||||||||||||||||
|
|
What Is PedNSS/PNSS?
|
|
Prepregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of weight for height expressed as wt (kg) / ht (m2) before the woman became pregnant. The BMI cut-off values specified by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 1990 are commonly used to classify women as underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese prior to pregnancy. Prepregnancy BMI is a determinant of weight gain during pregnancy and birthweight (IOM, 1990).
|
Review the definition of Prepregnancy BMI and its prevalence calculation.
Maternal Weight Gain also called gestational weight gain refers to the amount of weight gained from conception to delivery. In 1990 the IOM published recommended weight gain amounts based on prepregnancy BMI for optimal infant health. Maternal weight gain is based on prepregnancy weight status and is considered to be a major determinant of birthweight as well as infant mortality and morbidity.
Ideal Weight is defined as a total weight gain within the range recommended by the IOM for each prepregnancy BMI classification. The ideal weight gain recommendations by IOM are considered as targets for identifying women who should be evaluated for inadequate or excessive gains (IOM, 1990). Gestational weight gain varies considerably among women of the same age, weights, heights, ethnic backgrounds and socioeconomic status. However, teenagers and black women continue to gain less than the recommended amount and are at a higher risk for poor outcomes (HP2010). A developmental health objective was established in Healthy People 2010 to increase the proportion of mothers who achieve the recommended amount of weight gain during their pregnancies.
|
Less than (<)Ideal Weight Gain is defined as a total weight gain below the lower limits of that recommended by IOM for each prepregnancy BMI classification. Women with a low prepregnancy BMI and low gestational weight gain are more likely to have a low birthweight infant. During the second and third trimesters low maternal weight gain is a determinant of fetal growth, and is associated with smaller average birthweights and an increased risk of delivering an infant with fetal growth restriction. (IOM)
|
Greater than (>) Ideal Weight Gain is defined as a total weight gain that exceeds the upper limit of that recommended by IOM for each prepregnancy BMI classification. High maternal weight gain has been recognized as a common nutritional problem in the U. S. with the prevalence being highest among low-income, black and Hispanic women. (IOM, 1996) Macrosomia, increased risk of cesarean deliveries and, possibly, spontaneous preterm delivery are all problems associated with very high gestational weight gain. In adolescents, high weight gain during pregnancy is association with neonatal complications. (IOM, 1996)
|
Note that the IOM did not establish an upper limit for obese women; however, the upper limit was established as greater than 25 pounds in PNSS for data analysis.
Review the definition of Maternal Weight Gain and its prevalence calculation.
Anemia during pregnancy is defined as less than the 5th percentile of the distribution of hemoglobin (Hb) or hematocrit (Hct). The distribution and cut off values are based on data obtained from clinical studies of European women who had taken iron supplements during pregnancy. (MMWR, 1998). The cut off values vary by trimester for pregnant women and are different from nonpregnant women. For nonpregnant women, anemia cut off values are established below the 5th percentile of the distribution of Hb or Hct from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for a healthy population. Trimester and age specific cut off values used in PNSS are shown below for pregnant and nonpregnant women, respectively. Because persons residing at higher altitudes have higher hematology levels, in PNSS Hb or Hct values are automatically adjusted for altitude.
|
Pregnant women are at a higher risk for iron deficiency anemia because of
the increased iron requirements of pregnancy. In pregnant women hemoglobin
(Hb) or Hematocrit (Hct) levels drop during the first and second trimester
because of blood volume expansion. Among pregnant women who do not take
iron supplements Hb and Hct remain low during the third trimester.
Longitudinal studies have shown that the highest prevalence of anemia
during pregnancy is in the third trimester; therefore, the Healthy People
2010 objective monitors the prevalence of anemia during the third
trimester of pregnancy. This objective seeks to reduce anemia in the third
trimester among low income women from its baseline of 29 percent in 1996
to 20 percent in 2010. Pregnant women who have adequate iron intake have
a gradual rise in Hb and Hct during the third trimester toward the
prepregnancy levels (MMWR, 1998). Changes in the prevalence of anemia over
time can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs designed to
decrease the prevalence of iron deficiency.
The analysis of postpartum anemia includes only records with valid Hb and
Hct measurements taken at greater than 4 weeks or 28 days postpartum when
Hb and Hct measurements are expected to return to prepregnancy or first
trimester levels. After delivery, maternal hemoglobin is expected to
increase as the expanded red cell mass of pregnancy contracts and iron
returns to body stores.
Review the definition of Anemia and its prevalence calculation.
Parity refers to the number of times a woman has been pregnant for 20 or more weeks regardless of whether the infant is dead or alive at birth (The current pregnancy is not included.). Parity, or the number of previous pregnancies, has been shown to impact the long-term health status of women and pregnancy outcomes, specifically birthweight, for some groups. A number of studies show that first-born children have a lower mean birthweight and are at greater risk of low birthweight than subsequent children (Kramer, 1987; Cogswell and Yip, 1995; Macleod and Kiely, 1988; IOM, 1985,). Multiparity at a young age (under 20 years) increases the risk of delivering a low birthweight baby (IOM 1996; Kramer 1987) and increased parity is associated with excessive maternal postpartum weight retention (Parker and Abrams, 1993) and with iron deficiency (Looker et. al. 1997).
Review the definition of Parity and its prevalence calculation.
Interpregnancy Interval is considered to be the amount of time between pregnancies and is calculated as the number of months between the date the last pregnancy ended and the date of the last menstrual period. Women with short interpregnancy intervals are at nutritional risk and more likely to experience adverse birth outcomes. Studies conducted by Lieberman and colleagues showed that women with an interpregnancy interval less than 18 months were at greater risk of delivering a full term small for gestational age (low birthweight) infant compared to women with interpregnancy intervals of 24 to 36 months. (IOM, 1996) Furthermore, interpregnancy interval of 3 months has been shown to result in an increase in the risk of delivery of a pre-term or small for gestational age infant as well as neonatal death. Shorter interpregnancy intervals also mean a shorter time for repletion of nutrient stores. (IOM, 1996)
Review the definition of Interpregnancy Interval and its prevalence calculation.
Diabetes refers to the presence of diabetes mellitus or gestational diabetes during pregnancy. Diabetes is an endocrine disorder resulting from insulin deficiency that may occur at any time. Gestational diabetes increases the risk of complications during pregnancy. Women with gestational diabetes are at risk of delivering macrosomic infants and developing type II diabetes later in life. (IOM, 1996) It is estimated that 2 to 3 percent of pregnant women will develop gestational diabetes. (IOM, 1996) A developmental health objective for 2010 has been established to decrease the proportion of pregnant women with gestational diabetes.
Review the definition of Diabetes and its prevalence calculation.
Hypertension refers to the presence of chronic hypertension or pregnancy
induced hypertension. Hypertension is defined as an elevated arterial blood
pressure. (NRC,1989) In adults hypertension is classified as a systolic pressure
greater than 140 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure above 90 mm Hg. (WHO, 1978)
Women with chronic hypertension prior to pregnancy are more likely to experience
adverse pregnancy outcomes such as fetal growth restriction and abruptio
placentae. (IOM, 1996) Pregnancy induced hypertension occurs in 5-9 percent of
women and can lead to preeclampsia, eclampsia, and ultimately preterm delivery,
fetal growth retardation, abruption placentae, and fetal death. (Zhang et. al.
1997)
Review the definition of Hypertension and its prevalence calculation.
Medical Care indicates the month in which prenatal care began for the
current pregnancy. Medical care data are always collected at the prenatal visit.
It must be collected at the postpartum visit if the woman was not enrolled in
the program participating in the PNSS while she was pregnant or if she reported
at the prenatal visit that she had not begun medical care. The American College
of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) has established guidelines in
Standards for Obstetric-Gynecologic Service to monitor the progress of the
mother and developing fetus, which call for early entry into care with at least
13 visits during a full-term pregnancy. (Healthy People 2010) Women who begin
prenatal care after the first trimester are at a higher risk for poor pregnancy
outcomes with infants being born premature, low birthweight or growth retarded.
(Alexander and Korenbrot, 1995; IOM, 1990; USDA, 1991) Although a large
proportion of women receive early and adequate prenatal care, there is great
variation across racial ethnic groups and among some age groups. (Healthy
People 2010) Consequently, DHHS continues its health objective for 2010 to
increase to 90 percent the proportion of women who receive early and adequate
prenatal care. (Healthy People 2010).
Review the definition of Medical Care and its prevalence calculation.
WIC Enrollment is defined as the date the woman enrolled in WIC for the
current pregnancy. This indicator is used to determine the length of WIC
exposure for this pregnancy, which is related to birth outcome. A number of
studies considering WIC participation, low birthweight and prematurity concluded
that prenatal WIC participation is associated with improved birthweights and a
reduction in pre-term delivery. (Devaney et. al 1992, Abrams, 1993).
Additionally, Ahluwalia et. al. concluded that WIC participation resulted in a
reduction in small for gestational age deliveries. Furthermore, longer
enrollment in WIC program was associated with a reduced risk of small for
gestational age delivery. (Ahluwalia,1998)
Review the definition of WIC Enrollment and its prevalence calculation.
Multivitamin Consumption refers to the intake of multivitamin supplements containing the recommended amounts of folic acid prior to pregnancy and iron during pregnancy.
Review the definition of Multivitamin Consumption and its prevalence calculation.
Smoking During Pregnancy refers to the active use of cigarettes. It is associated with an increased risk for low birthweight delivery, spontaneous abortion, sudden infant death syndrome as well as long-term negative effects on growth and development, behavior and cognition of the infant. (IOM, 1996, Healthy People 2010) Healthy People 2010 calls for an increase in smoking cessation during pregnancy during the first trimester of pregnancy. (HP 2010)
Cigarette smoking 3 months prior to pregnancy indicates the number of women who reported smoking any number of cigarettes during the 3 months before pregnancy and is used to determine smoking cessation. According to the Surgeon General’s report on the benefits of smoking cessation, women who discontinue smoking prior to becoming pregnant deliver babies of the same birthweight as women who never smoked. (Surgeon General, 1990)*
Review the definition of Smoking and its prevalence calculation.
Smoking Changes are health indicators that show changes in the smoking behaviors of women that smoked cigarettes prior to pregnancy and quit by the first prenatal visit.
Review the definition of Smoking Changes and its prevalence calculation.
Smoking In Household refers to the exposure to tobacco-contaminated
air at home. This indicator assesses whether anyone in the household other
than the pregnant woman smoked at the time of her prenatal visit. A study
on the exposure to tobacco smoke among young infants (6 -8 weeks old)
living in homes where one member of the family other than the mother
smoked showed higher levels of cotinine compared to infants not exposed to
smoking. (Chilmonczyk, 1990) Infants and children exposed to particles
from secondhand smoke are at risk for impaired health, growth and
development. Exposure to tobacco smoke is associated with lower and upper
respiratory problems and asthma. (IOM, 1996) A recent review (Misra and
Nguyen, 1999) indicates that mothers exposed to environmental tobacco
smoke were 1.5 – 4 times more likely to deliver infants who were low
birthweight or small-for-gestational age than mothers who were not
exposed.
Review the definition of Smoking In Household and its prevalence calculation.
Drinking refers to the use or consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Alcohol is rapidly absorbed and enters fetal circulation and maternal milk. Pregnant women who consume more than 6 ounces of liquor (or the equivalent) per day have a 20 percent chance of having a child with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). (Benson and Pernell, 1994). Adverse physical and neurological problems may occur at lower levels of exposure to alcohol. (Bloss, 1994) Healthy People 2010 calls for abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy. Drinking during pregnancy is assessed using the two indicators listed below.
Review the definition of Drinking and its prevalence calculation.
Birthweight
Review the definition of Birthweight and its prevalence calculation.
Preterm Birth refers to delivery before 37 weeks gestation. Preterm
births are the largest contributor to neonatal, infant and perinatal
mortality in the U. S. and can be minimized by preventing problems like
anemia and inappropriate weight gain through nutrition intervention. (IOM,
1990, 1996) Other factors related to increased risk of preterm delivery
include low income, ethnic background (particularly black), young age,
smoking, and low education attainment. (IOM, 1996)
Review the definition of Preterm and its prevalence calculation.
Full Term Low Birthweight refers to infants born at or after 37
weeks weighing less than 2500 grams. This indicator is one of several used
to diagnose intrauterine growth retardation or fetal growth restriction.
(IOM, 1996) In these infants gestational age is not the issue because the
pregnancy is complete; however, poor maternal nutrition is cited as one of
the many causes of full term birthweight. (Kessel, 1978, IOM 1996) An infant’s size at birth is very
important as fetal growth restriction contributes to the risk of
respiratory distress, hypoglycemia and other problems. (IOM, 1996)
Review the definition of Full Term Low Birthweight and its prevalence calculation.
Breastfeeding Initiation reports the number of infants ever
breastfed or fed breastmilk. The nutritional, immunologic, allergenic,
economic and psychological advantages of breastfeeding are well
recognized. Breastfeeding is nutritionally superior to any
alternative infant feeding method and provides immunity to many viral and
bacterial diseases; enhances infants' immunologic defenses; prevents or
reduces risk of respiratory and diarrhea diseases; promotes correct
development of jaws, teeth and speech patterns; decreases tendency toward
childhood obesity and facilitates maternal infant attachment (Jacobi and
Levin, 1993; AAP 1997).
Review the definition of Breastfeeding Initiation and its prevalence calculation.