References
Baghurst PA, McMichael AJ, Vimpani GV, Robertson EF, Clark PD, Wigg NR. 1987. Determinants of blood lead concentrations of pregnant women living in Port Pirie and surrounding areas. Med J Aust 146:69-73.
Barry PS. 1975. A comparison of concentrations of lead in human tissues. Br J Ind Med 32: 119-139.
Barry PS, Mossman DB. 1970. Lead concentrations in human tissues. Br J Ind Med 27:339-351.
Börjesson J, Mattsson S, Stromberg U, Gerhardsson L, Schutz A, Skerfving S. 1997. Lead in fingerbone: a tool for retrospective exposure assessment. Arch Environ Health 52:104-112.
Bronner F. 1992. Bone and calcium homeostasis. Neurotoxicology 13:775-782.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993. Lead poisoning associated with use of traditional ethnic remedies. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 42: 521-524.
Garrido Latorre F, Hernandez-Avila M, Tamayo Orozco J, AlboresMedina CA, Aro A, Palazuelos E, etal. 2003. Relationship of blood and bone lead to menopause and bone mineral density among middle-age women in Mexico City. Environ Health Perspect 111:631-636.
Gerhardsson L, Attewell R, Chettle DR, Englyst V, Lundstrom NG, Nordberg GF, etal. 1993. In vivo measurements of lead in bone in long-term exposed lead smelter workers. Arch Environ Health 48:147-156.
Goldman RH, White R, Kales SN, Hu H. 1994. Lead poisoning from mobilization of bone stores during thyrotoxicosis. Am J Ind Med 25:417-424.
Gulson BL, Mizon KJ, Korsch MJ, Palmer JM, Donnelly JB. 2003. Mobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation--a summary of long-term research. Sci Total Environ 303:79-104.
Heaney RP, Recker RR, Saville PD. 1978. Menopausal changes in bone remodeling. J Lab Clin Med 92: 964-970.
Hernandez-Avila M, Smith D, Meneses F, Sanin LH, Hu H. 1998. The influence of bone and blood lead on plasma lead levels in environmentally exposed adults. Environ Health Perspect 106:473-477.
Hernandez-Avila M, Villalpando CG, Palazuelos E, Hu H, Villalpando ME, Martinez DR. 2000. Determinants of blood lead levels across the menopausal transition. Arch Environ Health 55:355-360.
Hu H, Rabinowitz M, Smith D. 1998. Bone lead as a biological marker in epidemiologic studies of chronic toxicity: conceptual paradigms. Environ Health Perspect 106: 1-8.
Inskip MJ, Franklin CA, Subramanian KS, Blenkinsop J, Wandelmaier F. 1992. Sampling of cortical and trabecular bone for lead analysis: method development in a study of lead mobilization during pregnancy. Neurotoxicology 13: 825-834.
Kim R, Aro A, Rotnitzky A, Amarasiriwardena C, Hu H. 1995. K X-ray fluorescence measurements of bone lead concentration: the analysis of low-level data. Phys Med Biol 40:1475-1485.
Korrick SA, Schwartz J, Tsaih SW, Hunter DJ, Aro A, Rosner B, etal. 2002. Correlates of bone and blood lead levels among middle-aged and elderly women. Am J Epidemiol 156: 335-343.
Kosnett MJ, Becker CE, Osterloh JD, Kelly TJ, Pasta DJ. 1994. Factors influencing bone lead concentration in a suburban community assessed by noninvasive K X-ray fluorescence. JAMA 271:197-203.
Landrigan PJ, Baker EL Jr, Himmelstein JS, Stein GF, Weddig JP, Straub WE. 1982. Exposure to lead from the Mystic River Bridge: the dilemma of deleading. N Engl J Med 306: 673-676.
Lindquist O, Bengtsson C, Hansson T, Roos B. 1981. Bone mineral content in relation to age and menopause in middle-aged women. A study of bone density in lumbar vertebrae by dual photon absorptiometry in a population sample of women. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 41:215-223.
Markowitz SB, Nunez CM, Klitzman S, Munshi AA, Kim WS, EisingerJ, etal. 1994. Lead poisoning due to hai ge fen. The porphyrin content of individual erythrocytes. JAMA 271: 932-934.
Muldoon SB, Cauley JA, Kuller LH, Scott J, Rohay J. 1994. Lifestyle and sociodemographic factors as determinants of blood lead levels in elderly women. Am J Epidemiol 139:599-608.
Nash D, Magder L, Lustberg M, Sherwin RW, Rubin RJ, KaufmannRB, etal. 2003. Blood lead, blood pressure, and hypertension in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. JAMA 289:1523-1532.
Nash D, Silbergeld E, Mager L, Stolley P. 1998. Menopause, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), and blood lead levels among adult women from NHANES III, 1988-1994. Am J Epidemiol 147:S93.
Nilsson U, Attewell R, Christoffersson JO, Schutz A, Ahlgren L, SkerfvingS, etal. 1991. Kinetics of lead in bone and blood after end of occupational exposure. Pharmacol Toxicol 68: 477-484.
O'Flaherty EJ. 1992. Modeling bone mineral metabolism, with special reference to calcium and lead. Neurotoxicology 13:789-797.
Parsons PJ. 2002. Monitoring human exposure to lead: an assessment of current laboratory performance for the determination of blood lead. Environ Res 57: 149-162.
Payton M, Riggs KM, Spiro A III, Weiss ST, Hu H. 1998. Relations of bone and blood lead to cognitive function: the VA Normative Aging Study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 20: 19-27.
Pirkle JL, Brody DJ, Gunter EW, Kramer RA, Paschal DC, Flegal KM, etal. 1994. The decline in blood lead levels in the United States. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). JAMA 272:284-291.
Pounds JG. 1984. Effect of lead intoxication on calcium homeostasis and calcium-mediated cell function: a review. Neurotoxicology 5:295-331.
Prestwood KM, Gunness M, Muchmore DB, Lu Y, Wong M, RaiszLG. 2000. A comparison of the effects of raloxifene and estrogen on bone in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2197-2202.
Price J, Grudzinski AW, Craswell PW, Thomas BJ. 1992. Repeated bone lead levels in Queensland, Australia--previously a high lead environment. Arch Environ Health 47:256-262.
Rabinowitz MB, Wetherill GW, Kopple JD. 1976. Kinetic analysis of lead metabolism in healthy humans. J Clin Invest 58:260-270.
Riggs BL, Melton LJ III. 1986. Involutional osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 314:1676-1686.
Ryan CM, Morrow L, Parkinson D, Bromet E. 1987. Low level lead exposure and neuropsychological functioning in blue collar males. Int J Neurosci 36: 29-39.
Silbergeld EK, Schwartz J, Mahaffey K. 1988. Lead and osteoporosis: mobilization of lead from bone in postmenopausal women. Environ Res 47:79-94.
Simons TJ. 1993. Lead-calcium interactions in cellular lead toxicity. Neurotoxicology 14:77-85.
Symanski E, Hertz-Picciotto I. 1995. Blood lead levels in relation to menopause, smoking, and pregnancy history. Am J Epidemiol 141:1047-1058.
Tellez-Rojo MM, Hernandez-Avila M, Gonzalez-Cossio T, RomieuI, Aro A, Palazuelos E, etal. 2002. Impact of breastfeeding on the mobilization of lead from bone. Am J Epidemiol 155:420-428.
Todd AC, Landrigan PJ, Bloch P. 1993. Workshop on the X-ray fluorescence of lead in bone: conclusions, recommendations and summary. Neurotoxicology 14: 145-154.
Todd AC, Parsons PJ, Carroll S, Geraghty C, Khan FA, Tang S, etal. 2002. Measurements of lead in human tibiae. A comparison between K-shell X-ray fluorescence and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Phys Med Biol 47: 673-687.
Todd AC, Parsons PJ, Tang S, Moshier EL. 2001. Individual variability in human tibia lead concentration. Environ Health Perspect 109:1139-1143.
Webber CE, Chettle DR, Bowins RJ, Beaumont LF, Gordon CL, SongX, etal. 1995. Hormone replacement therapy may reduce the return of endogenous lead from bone to the circulation. Environ Health Perspect 103:1150-1153.
Weyermann M, Brenner H. 1997. Alcohol consumption and smoking habits as determinants of blood lead levels in a national population sample from Germany. Arch Environ Health 52:233-239.
Wittmers LE Jr, Aufderheide AC, Wallgren J, Rapp G Jr, AlichA. 1988. Lead in bone. IV. Distribution of lead in the human skeleton. Arch Environ Health 43:381-391.
Wolff I, van Croonenborg JJ, Kemper HC, Kostense PJ, Twisk JW. 1999. The effect of exercise training programs on bone mass: a meta-analysis of published controlled trials in pre- and postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 9: 1-12.
Last Updated: November 8, 2004