Sharon Reynolds: You asked for a reference regarding degrees of
embeddedness. See the work by Casey et al in the following note. Tom Sticht

Celebrating 20 Years of Functional Context Education: 1987-2007

April 3, 2007

Functional Context Education Principles Show
"What Works" in ABE and ESOL Instruction

Tom Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education


The year 2007 is the twentieth anniversary of the formulation of
Functional Context Education principles (Sticht, Armstrong, Hickey, &
Caylor, 1987). These principles were based on extensive research on how the
U. S. military could annually enlist tens of thousands of young adults with
literacy skills below the 30th percentile, about the 6th grade, with
little or no work experience, and in a matter of just a few weeks
transform them into automobile mechanics, medical corpsmen, clerical
staff, commercial cooks, and other skilled and semi-skilled workers.

The review lead to the formulation of six principles that facilitate
learning on entry into a course, learning throughout the course, and
transfer into the contexts for which the learning is meant to apply.

o1. Make sure students understand the purpose of the program and the
usefulness of the knowledge and skills to be learned.

o2. Consider the knowledge that students bring with them and build new
knowledge on the basis of this old knowledge.

o3. Develop and sequence new lessons so they build on prior knowledge
gained in previous lessons.

o4. Integrate instruction in basic skills (reading, math) into programs
as the course poses demands for these skills that potential students may
not possess.

o5. Derive objectives from careful analysis of the realistic knowledge
and skill needed in the work, home, or other community contexts in which
the learner lives.

o6. Use, to the extent possible, learning contexts, tasks, materials,
and procedures taken from the future situation in which the learner will
be functioning.

Since 1987 some "silver standard," quasi-experimental studies have been
found that provide evidence for the usefulness of the six FCE principles
in civilian programs of Adult Basic Education (ABE) and English for
Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL).

Research on Integrated Vocational and ESOL Instruction

Sticht, McDonald, & Erickson, (1998) compared an Electronics Assembly
Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL) class which integrated
vocational and ESOL together, a Vocational class in Electronics Assembly
(no ESOL instruction) and a conventional ESOL class, not vocationally
related. In all three courses pre- and post-test data were obtained on a
vocational vocabulary test related to electronics training and a general
literacy test (the Adult Basic Learning Exam-ABLE). The data showed that
the integrated VOCED+VESL program had greater gains on the vocational
vocabulary test than either of the comparison groups, as well as a gain
rate per 100 hours of instruction some 65 percent higher for general
reading (ABLE) than the general ESL program, and over 300 percent
greater than the VOCED program.

Altogether, the data on the FCE VESL+ VOCED program indicated that it
produced greater retention, greater course completion, and higher gains
in learning than did the comparison courses of general ESL or a
conventional electronics vocational education course. Other data also
indicated that placements of students in the VOCED+ESOL program into
electronics jobs was high, almost 100 percent, and many were placed by
the ninth week of the course. This reflects the importance of FCE
principles 5 and 6 in helping students transfer new knowledge and skills
from the classroom to the world of work.

United Kingdom Research on Embedded Language, Literacy, Numeracy (LLN)
in Vocational Courses

Casey, et. al (2006) reported research with 1,916 learners in 79
vocational courses with varying amounts of embedded language, literacy
or numeracy (LLN) (FCE principle #4). Using a four point scale courses were
rated as non-embedded, partly embedded, mostly embedded, and fully
embedded. This provides a form of quasi-experimental design with a
treatment group (fully embedded) and three comparison groups.

The authors reported that, "On the embedded courses retention was 16
per cent higher....The embedded courses also had higher success rates
than the non-embedded courses. ... For learners on the fully-embedded
courses, 93 per cent of those with an identified literacy need achieved
a literacy/ESOL qualification, compared to only 50 per cent for those on
non-embedded courses. On the fully embedded courses, 43 per cent more
learners achieved literacy qualifications. ...For learners on the
fully-embedded courses, 93 per cent of those with an identified numeracy
need achieved a numeracy/maths qualification, compared to 70 per cent
for those on non-embedded courses. On the fully embedded courses, 23 per
cent more learners achieved numeracy qualifications." (p. 5)

The United States' What Works Study For Adult ESL Literacy Students

Condelli & Wrigley (2004) discuss research for the U. S. Department of
Education to identify effective instructional practices ("what works")
for adults needing basic literacy instruction along with ESOL. Among
other findings, they reported two major instructional factors related to
achievement in literacy and oral language that are consistent with FCE
principles.

First, in what the authors called "connection to the outside," they found
that "students in classes where teachers made connections to the
"outside" or real world, had more growth in reading development measured
both by general reading and "real world" reading. This is consistent with
FCE principles because it makes the purpose of the learning apparent, it
supports learning in the functional context of "real world" materials,
and it shows how the learning relates to the person's life outside the
classroom.

A second major finding was that, "students in classes where teachers
used students' native language for clarification during instruction
(e.g., to explain concepts and provide instructions on class work) had
faster growth in reading comprehension and oral communication skills."
This is consistent with FCE principles because it helps the teacher
explain the purposes of what is being learned and it makes it possible
to draw upon the learner's prior knowledge of the native language as a
means of learning new knowledge of the English language.

In summary, at the present time, the Functional Context Education
principles are supported by the largest body of scientific,
quasi-experimental research on adult vocational, English language,
literacy and numeracy instruction in the field of adult education. They
provide a solid foundation for evidence-based instruction in the Adult
Education and Literacy System of the United States and other
English-speaking industrialized nations.

References

Casey, H. et. al (2006, November). "You wouldn't expect a maths teacher
to teach plastering..." online at www.nrdc.org.uk.

Condelli, L. & Wrigley, H. (2004) Real World Research: Combining
Qualitative and Quantitative Research for Adult ESL. Paper presented at
the National Research and Development Centre (NRDC) Second International
Conference for Adult Literacy and Numeracy, Loughborough, England.
Downloaded from the internet April 3, 2007 from
http://www.nifl.gov/pipermail/professionaldevelopment/attachments/200704
01/dea5b0a7/attachment-0002.doc

Sticht, T., McDonald, B., & Erickson, P. (1998). Passports to Paradise:
The Struggle To Teach and To Learn on the Margins of Adult Education. El
Cajon, CA: Applied Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Inc., (available
online at www.searchERIC.org ). [note: this may no longer be active]

Sticht, T., Armstrong, W., Hickey, D., & Caylor, J. (1987). Cast-off
youth: policies and training methods from the military experience. NY:
Praeger.

Thomas G. Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education
2062 Valley View Blvd.
El Cajon, CA 92019
Tel/fax: (619) 444-9133
Email: tsticht at aznet.net