National Institute on Drug Abuse
Director's Report to the National Advisory Council on Drug
Abuse
May, 1997
Research Findings
Epidemiology, Etiology and Prevention Research
The Community Epidemiology Work Group (CEWG) met in Austin, Texas on
December 9-12, 1996. The CEWG is composed of researchers from 20 selected
metropolitan areas of the United States who meet semiannually to report
on patterns and trends of drug abuse in their respective areas; emerging
drugs of abuse; vulnerable populations and factors that may place people
at risk of drug use and abuse; and, negative health and social consequences.
Reports are based on drug abuse indicator data, such as morbidity and mortality
information, treatment data and local and State law enforcement data. Additional
sources of information include criminal justice, correctional, medical and
community health data, local and State survey information and research findings
from ethnographic studies. * (The most recent available DAWN data are for
1995. Increases noted are for 1994 versus 1995 data and are included only
when they are reliable at p<0.05.)
The following are highlights of the meeting held in December 1996.
Cocaine
Crack cocaine continues to dominate the Nation's illicit drug problem,
although trends are generally stable. Supplies remain abundant in nearly
every city. Indicator data show leveling off in many urban areas: cocaine-related
deaths were stable or up slightly in 9 of the 10 areas where such information
was reported; emergency department (ED) mentions increased in only 4 of
the 19 CEWG cities in the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN); the percentage
of treatment admissions for primary cocaine problems declined slightly or
remained stable in 12 of the 14 areas where data were available; and prices
of cocaine remained stable in most areas. Although demographic data continue
to show most cocaine users as older, inner-city crack addicts, isolated
field reports indicate new using populations: teenagers smoking crack with
marijuana in blunts in some cities; Hispanic crack users in Texas; and,
in the Atlanta area, middle-class suburban users of cocaine hydrochloride
and female crack users in their thirties with no prior drug history.
Heroin
Quantitative indicators and field reports continue to suggest an increasing
incidence of new users (snorters) in the younger age groups, often among
women. In some areas, such as Boston, Newark, and San Francisco, the recent
initiates increasingly include middle-class members, often from the suburbs.
Concern also was expressed that young heroin snorters may shift to injecting
because of increased tolerance, nasal soreness, or declining or unreliable
purity. Purity has, indeed, been declining or inconsistent in some cities,
such as Atlanta, Boston, and New York City. Nevertheless, purity remains
high-as does intranasal use-in the East and in some midwestern cities, notably
Chicago and Detroit. Supplies remain abundant. Aggressive marketing and
price cutting has intensified in some cities, such as Boston, Detroit, and
New York; heroin dealers often sell other drugs too, as in Miami and some
Atlanta neighborhoods. Recent mortality figures have increased or are stable
at elevated levels in 5 of the 9 cities where trend data are available;
rates of ED mentions have increased in 8 of the 19 cities in DAWN; and the
percentage of those in treatment reporting heroin use has increased in 8
of 14 areas.
Marijuana
The resurgence in marijuana use continues especially among adolescents
with rates of ED mentions increasing* in 10 cities, the percentage of treatment
admissions increasing in 13 areas, and Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) percentages
increasing among juvenile arrestees at numerous sites. In several cities,
such as Minneapolis/St. Paul, increasing treatment figures have been particularly
notable among juveniles. Two factors may be contributing to the dramatic
leap in adverse consequences: (1) higher potency; and (2) use of marijuana
mixed with or in combination with other dangerous drugs. Marijuana cigarettes
or blunts often include crack, a combination known by various street names,
such as "3750s," "diablitos," "primos," "oolies,"
and "woolies." Joints and blunts are also frequently dipped in
PCP and go by street names such as "happy sticks," "wicky
sticks," "illies," "love boat," "wet,"
or "tical." Both types of combinations are reported in Boston,
Chicago, and New York; the marijuana-crack combinations are also sold in
St. Louis; and the marijuana-PCP combinations are reported in Philadelphia
and parts of Texas. In several cities, such as Atlanta and Chicago, teenagers
often drink malt liquor when smoking marijuana. Marijuana cigarettes are
also sometimes dipped in embalming fluid, as reported in Boston (where they
are known as "shermans") and areas of Texas.
Stimulants
In several western and midwestern cities, methamphetamine indicators,
which had been steadily increasing for several years, appear mixed this
reporting period. All indicators suggest increases in San Francisco and
Seattle, while San Diego and Los Angeles indicators show stable or slightly
declining trends-however, it is too soon to predict that the indicators
in those areas have peaked. Increased methamphetamine availability and use
is sporadically reported in diverse areas of the country, particularly rural
areas, prompting some concern about its spread outside of the areas of endemic
use-the west coast. Most methamphetamine comes from large scale Mexican
operations. Recent seizures in Florida have included powder cocaine, heroin,
and flunitrazepam in the same shipment with methamphetamine. Additionally,
local labs remain common, with seizures increasing in areas such as Seattle,
Arizona, and rural Michigan and Missouri. Rural areas, such as those outside
of Atlanta and St. Louis, are experiencing a much worse methamphetamine
problem than urban areas. All four routes of administration-injecting, snorting,
smoking (including "chasing the dragon" in San Francisco), and
oral ingestion-are used but vary extensively from city to city. Reports
of methamphetamine-related violence persist in Honolulu and are now also
occurring in Seattle.
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) abuse continues among heroin users in Chicago
and adolescents in Detroit. Methcathinone ("cat" or "goobs")
has been reported in several indicators in Detroit and Michigan's Upper
Peninsula, including treatment admissions and one death in Detroit. Ephedrine
based products sold at convenience stores, truck stops, and health food
stores are common among adolescents in Atlanta, Detroit, Minneapolis/St.
Paul, and Texas. New York State recently banned the sale of such products
in an attempt to curb escalating abuse among adolescents. Methylene dioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA or "ecstasy") use was reported-most often among young adults
and adolescents at clubs, raves, and rock concerts in Atlanta, Miami, St.
Louis, Seattle, and areas of Texas.
Depressants
Use of gamma hydroxybutrate (GHB) in the club scene is becoming more
widespread throughout the country, notably in Atlanta, Detroit, Honolulu,
Miami, New York City (where it is also reportedly used by fashion models),
Phoenix, and Texas. Ketamine ("Special K") use in nightclubs has
also been reported in several cities. A mixture of GHB, ketamine, and alcohol,
called "Special K-lude" because of the similar effects produced
by methaqualone (Quaalude), is reported in New York City. Flunitrazepam
(Rohypnol) use continues in many areas of the country (with the exception
of the Northeast), most notably in Texas and Florida. Its widespread availability
has declined, however, since the Federal ban on its importation. Other medications
from the same manufacturer are now being sold and abused as "roofies"
in Miami, Minnesota, and Texas. These drugs include clonazepam (another
pharmaceutical benzodiazepine, marketed in Mexico as Rivotril), which has
the same distinguishing manufacturer's imprint as flunitrazepam. Clonazepam
(marketed in the United States as Klonopin) is also used by addicts in Atlanta
and Minneapolis/St. Paul to enhance the effects of methadone and other opiates.
Hallucinogens
According to field reports in numerous areas, such as Boston, Chicago,
Philadelphia, St. Louis, Texas, and Washington, DC, phencyclidine (PCP)
is often used in combination with other drugs. The most frequently reported
combination is joints or blunts containing marijuana mixed with or dipped
into PCP. However, in other cities, such as Los Angeles and New Orleans,
PCP is most commonly purchased as a predipped cigarette. In New York City,
PCP is combined with crack in "spaceballs." PCP ED mentions increased
in 10 cities, but rates remain relatively low. Lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD) remains widely available in most CEWG cities, especially in suburban
and rural areas. Use of psilocybin mushrooms has also been reported among
adolescents and young adults in Boston, Minneapolis/St. Paul, and Philadelphia.
Mexico and Canada
While Mexico remains a primary supplier and transshipment point of drugs
into the United States, it is also coping with drug abuse problems of its
own. Cocaine is the most common primary substance of abuse among treatment
admissions, followed by marijuana, inhalants, and alcohol. Flunitrazepam
(Rohypnol) is particularly common among cocaine abusers. Heroin has not
appeared at high levels in the indicator data, although use is higher in
the border regions. Conversely, indicator data in Toronto, Canada, show
heroin use has increased dramatically in the past several years, especially
among younger users. Survey data also show dramatically increased marijuana
use among teenagers. Similar to the United States, however, cocaine remains
Toronto's primary illicit drug, but indicators appear relatively stable.
Five Year Follow-Up Results of The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance
Education (Project DARE)
This article reports the results of a 5-year, prospective longitudinal
evaluation of the effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE),
a school-based primary drug prevention curriculum designed for introduction
during the last year of elementary school. Twenty-three elementary schools
were randomly assigned to receive DARE and 8 were designated comparison
schools. No significant differences were observed between intervention and
comparison schools with respect to cigarette, alcohol, or marijuana use
during the 7th grade, approximately one year after completion of the program,
or over the full 5-year measurement period. Significant intervention effects
in the hypothesized direction were observed during the 7th grade for measures
of students' general and specific attitudes toward drugs, the capability
to resist peer pressure, and estimated level of drug use by peers. Over
the full measurement interval, however, average trajectories of change for
these outcomes were similar in the intervention and comparison conditions.
The findings of this study are largely consonant with the results obtained
from prior short-term evaluations of the DARE curriculum, which have reported
limited effects of the program upon drug use, greater efficacy with respect
to attitudes, social skills, and knowledge, but a general tendency for curriculum
effects to decay over time. The results of this study underscore the need
for more robust prevention programming targeted specifically at risk factors,
the inclusion of booster sessions to sustain positive effects, and greater
attention to interrelationships between developmental processes in adolescent
substance use, individual level characteristics, and social context. Clayton,
R.R., Cattarello, A.M., Johnstone, B.M. The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse
Resistance Education (Project DARE): 5-Year Follow-Up Results. Preventive
Medicine, 25, pp. 307-318, 1996.
Insolubility of Heroin Linked to Syringe Sharing
Over an 18-month period, researchers conducted interviews with three
separate samples of heroin injectors in two inner-city Chicago communities.
A large majority from each sample (85% of sample 1, n=39; 72% of sample
2, n=417; and 81% of sample 3, n=400) reported that their heroin clogged
their needles/syringes. In each of the respective samples, 55%, 28%, and
19% of the heroin injectors said they had shared needles/syringes with others
because heroin has clogged works. The researchers explored the reasons for
the widespread "jelling-up" of heroin in the Chicago area, and
identified several conditions under which inappropriate diluents and adulterants
are used to "cut" heroin: control and dominance of the heroin
market by gangs, ignorance of proper diluents and adulterants, and the emergence
of a dual market (intranasal, injecting) for heroin. The authors discuss
the implications of these factors in terms of preventing the spread of HIV
and other infections among heroin injectors and their partners. Furst, R.,
Nettey, R., Wiebel, W. et al. "The 'Jelling-Up of Dope:' Implications
for the Transmission of HIV Among IDUs." Addiction Research, 4(4),
pp. 309-320, 1997.
Demographic and Psychosocial Risk for Alcohol Use: Ethnic Differences
NIDA supported researchers examined the influence of demographic variables
and social (parents and peers), attitudinal, and intentions variables regarding
alcohol use on actual drinking behavior among Asian and white populations.
Asian (n=148; 79 female, 69 male) and white (n =132; 72 female, 60 male)
college students completed a questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analyses
revealed that social and attitudinal factors reflected a common construct
of psychosocial vulnerability which, in a structural equation model, was
significantly predicted by ethnicity. The white population was exposed to
more psychosocial risks to alcohol use compared to the Asian population.
Ethnicity, however, did not directly predict either drinking intentions
or drinking behavior, after the effects on Psychosocial Vulnerability were
considered. These findings suggest that ethnic differences in alcohol use
between Asians and whites are mainly due to different levels of exposure
to risk factors. Effective prevention programs must consider, not only psychosocial
factors, but also certain contextual factors such as sex and ethnicity.
Keefe, K., and Newcomb, M.D. Demographic and Psychosocial Risk for Alcohol
Use: Ethnic Differences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 57, pp. 521-530,
1996
Influences of Parental Drug Use, Personality, and Child Rearing on
the Toddler's Anger and Negativity
How parental personality and drug use and the parent-child relationship
are related to a toddler's anger and negativity was investigated. The sample
consisted of 62 female and 53 male 2-year-old children and their parents.
The results supported a mediational model. The father's drug use and parental
personality attributes were linked to the child's anger and negativity indirectly,
through the parent-child relationship. The findings indicated that maternal
personality and child-rearing practices had a greater effect on the child
than the paternal characteristics or the father-child relationship did.
The results also suggested that the effect of one parent on the child was
altered by the relationship the child had with the other parent. Implications
for prevention and treatment are discussed. Brook, J.S., and Tseng, L. Genetic,
Social and General Psychology Monographs, Heldref Publications, 1996.
Toddler Adjustment: Impact of Parents Drug Use, Personality, and Parent-Child
Relations
The intercorrelations among parents' drug use, personality, and parent-child
relations and the child's anxious/regressive behaviors were investigated
in a sample of 2-year-olds (N=115). The results indicate that maternal child-rearing
practices mediate the effect of maternal personality attributes on the child's
intrapsychic functioning. The father's drug use had a direct influence on
the child's reflective behavior. Generally, the mother's drug use, personality,
and child-rearing practices were more important than the father's attributes.
However, the father's drug use had a strong impact on the child when it
interacted with the mother's drug use. Parental differences and implications
for prevention are discussed. Brook, J.S., and Tseng, L. The Journal of
Genetic Psychology, 157(6), 1996.
Childhood Antecedents of Adolescent Personality Disorders
The purpose of this study was to investigate the childhood antecedents
of personality disorders that are diagnosed in adolescence. A randomly selected
community sample of 641 youths was assessed mutually in childhood and followed
longitudinally over 10 years. Childhood behavior ratings were based on maternal
reports: diagnosis of adolescent personality disorders were based on data
obtained from both maternal and youth informants. Four composite measures
of childhood behavior problems were used: conduct problems, depressive symptoms,
anxiety/fear, and immaturity. Adolescent personality disorders were considered
present only if the disorders persisted over a 2-year period. For all analyses,
personality disorders were grouped into three clusters (A, B, and C) of
DSM-III R. Logistic regression analyses indicated that all four of the putative
childhood antecedents were associated with greater odds of an adolescent
personality disorder in all three clusters, even when other childhood problems
were included in the same regression model. Additionally, depressive symptoms
emerged as an independent predictor of cluster B personality disorders in
girls. No monitoring effects of age at time of childhood assessment were
found. These results support the view that personality disorders can be
traced to childhood emotional and behavioral disturbances and suggest that
these problems have both general and specific relationships to adolescent
personality functioning. Bernstein, D.P., Cohen, P., Skodol, A., Bezirganian,
S., and Brook, J.S. Childhood Antecedents of Adolescent Personality Disorders.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7), pp. 907-913, 1996.
Depression Spectrum Disease
This study used an adoption study design to separate genetic from environmental
factors in the etiology of depression spectrum disease, a type of major
depression characterized by families in which male relatives are alcoholic
and females are depressed. The genetic etiology hypothesis of depression
spectrum disease proposes that an alcoholic genetic diathesis predisposes
to depression in females but alcoholism, not depression, in males. The study
examined 197 adult offspring (95 male and 102 female) of alcoholic biological
parents and used logistic regression models to determine the contribution
to major depression in male and female adoptees that could be explained
by the genetic alcoholic diathesis combined with an environmental factor
that was characterized by psychiatrically or behaviorally disturbed adoptive
parents. Major depression in females was predicted by an alcoholic diathesis
only when combined with the disturbed adoptive parent variable. The same
regression model failed to predict depression in males. Other possible environmental
confounding factors contributing to an increased chance of depression were
found in females: fetal alcohol exposure, age at the time of adoption, and
a family with an adopted sibling who had a psychiatric problem. These variables
did not diminish the significance of the prediction of depression with the
alcohol genetic diathesis and disturbed parent model. Conclusions were that
a genetic factor is present for which alcoholism is at least a marker, and
which exerts its effect in women as a gene-environment interaction leading
to major depression. This finding suggests that an important etiologic factor
in depression spectrum disease is gene-environment interaction. The results
are important for the substance abuse field because of the lasting effect
upon female children of alcoholics and the additional fact that long term
follow-up of females with depression spectrum disease find an increase in
later life substance abuse. Cadoret, R.J., Winokur, G., Langbehn, D., Troughton,
E., Yates, W.R., and Stewart, M.A. Depression Spectrum Disease, I: The Role
of Gene-Environment Interaction. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7),
pp. 892-899, 1996.
An Adoption Study of DSM-IIIR Alcohol and Drug Dependence Severity
The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of genetic factors
in alcohol and drug dependence at various levels of DSM-IIIR psychoactive
substance dependence severity. One-hundred ninety seven adoptees (95 case
adoptees with biological parental alcoholism, drug dependence or antisocial
personality disorder and 102 control adoptees) were interviewed for the
presence of alcohol abuse or dependence and drug abuse or dependence using
the Diagnostic Interview Schedule-DISIIIR. Adoptees with five or more DSM-IIIR
criteria for alcohol dependence demonstrated evidence of a genetic effect
using this adoption paradigm. Adoptees with one or more DSM-IIIR criteria
for drug dependence demonstrated a genetic effect. This study suggests genetic
factors influence the risk for alcohol and drug dependence at different
thresholds of severity as determined by DSM-IIIR symptom severity count
and that consideration of thresholds of diagnosis are important in determining
the outcome of genetic studies. Yates, W.R., Cadoret, R.J., Troughton, E.,
and Stewart, M.A. An Adoption Study of DSM-IIIR Alcohol and Drug Dependence
Severity. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 41, pp. 9-15, 1996.
The Developmental Interface Between Nature and Nurture
In a collaborative study between a consortium of investigators, an adoption
paradigm was used to explore a mechanism through which heritable characteristics
of adopted children evoke adoptive parent responses. The study focused upon
adoptee hostile/antisocial behavior. Subjects were 25 male and 20 female
adoptees (separated at birth from biologic parents and placed with non-relatives)
and their adoptive parents. Subjects ranged from 12-18 years of age and
were selected on the basis of psychopathology reported in biologic parents
as determined from hospital and prison records. Antisocial personality and
substance abuse were the principal diagnoses in biologic parents. Behavioral
observations were made of adoptive parent interactions with their adopted
adolescent on a variety of problem-solving tasks. Structural equation modeling
demonstrated that psychiatric disorders in the biologic parents correlated
positively with their adopted-away offspring's antisocial/hostile behaviors.
In turn, the adoptee antisocial/hostile behaviors were associated with harsh/inconsistent
disciplinary behaviors in both adoptive mother and father. These results
are consistent with an evocative model in which a child's heritable characteristics
influence parental practice as a mediator. Further modeling developed evidence
for a mutual influence of behaviors between mother's disciplinary practices
and adoptee hostile/antisocial behaviors. The results demonstrate the importance
of parenting practices in affecting (and being affected by) child behavior,
and are relevant to the prevention of behaviors which are known to be associated
with substance abuse. Ge, X., Conger, R.D., Cadoret, R.J., Neiderhiser,
J.M., Yates, W., Troughton, E., and Stewart, M.A. The Developmental Interface
Between Nature and Nurture: A Mutual Influence Model of Child Antisocial
Behavior and Parent Behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, pp. 574-589,
1996.
Perceived Control and Environmental Predictability Buffer Adolescents
from Effects of Parental Alcoholism
Researchers at Arizona State University examined protective factors that
may protect adolescents from risks associated with parental alcoholism.
Using data from their longitudinal study of adolescents in alcoholic families
and demographically matched controls, they compared a subsample of 179 adolescents
who abstained from substance use during a 3-year measurement interval with
88 initial abstainers who began to use substances over this period. Predictor
variables were derived from computer-assisted interviews at the time of
initial measurement when adolescents were 11-15 years of age. Results showed
that COAs, older adolescents, and adolescents from disorganized home environments
were more likely to initiate substance use than were non-COAs, younger adolescents,
and those from homes high in family organization. Moreover, high levels
of perceived control and very high or very low levels of coping buffered
the risk for substance use initiation that was associated with parental
alcoholism. The findings suggest that preventive interventions might either
1) attempt to increase predictability and organization of the home environment
or 2) increase adolescents' abilities to cope with these environments, and
thus increase their levels of perceived control. Hussong, A. and Chassin,
L. Substance Use Initiation Among Adolescent Children of Alcoholics: Testing
Protective Factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58(3), pp. 272-279, 1996.
Comorbidity and Boundaries of Affective Disorders with Anxiety Disorders
and Substance Misuse: Results of an International Task Force
Associations between affective disorders, anxiety disorders and substance
use disorders were examined in epidemiological studies conducted in Germany,
Switzerland, Puerto Rico, and the mainland U.S. There was a remarkable degree
of similarity across studies in the magnitude and type of specific disorders
associated with the affective disorders. Comorbidity with affective disorders
was greater for the anxiety disorders than for substance misuse. Panic disorder
was the subtype of anxiety that was most highly comorbid with depression.
Social phobia was the specific phobic type with the strongest association
with the affective disorders. The magnitude of associations between substance
misuse and affective disorders generally was quite low and less consistent
across sites. No major differences were found in the patterns of comorbidity
by gender or age group, affective subtype or prevalence period. The onset
of anxiety disorders generally preceded that of depression, whereas alcohol
misuse was equally likely to pre- or post-date the onset of affective disorders.
Finally, comorbidity was associated with an elevation in treatment rates
across all sites, confirming Berkson's paradox on an international level.
Merikangas, K.R., August, J., Eaton, W., Canino, G., Rubio-Stipec, M., Wacker,
H., Wittchen, H.U., Andrade, L., Essau, C., Whitaker, A., Kraemer, H., Robins,
L.N., and Kupfer, D.J. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168 (30), pp. 58 67,
1996.
Substance Abuse, Comorbidity, and Sensation Seeking: Gender Differences
Two hundred sixty-two probands and 261 of their relatives with DSM-III-R
diagnoses of drug and alcohol abuse and/or anxiety disorders completed the
Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale. It was hypothesized that subjects with
both substance abuse disorders and comorbid anxiety disorders would have
lower sensation-seeking profiles than subjects with substance abuse alone.
This was confirmed in women, with thrill- and adventure-seeking scores showing
significant differences between pure substance abusers and those with a
comorbid anxiety disorder, lending support of theories that substance abusers
are a heterogeneous group. In men, there were fewer significant differences
between diagnostic groups. If substance abusers are indeed a heterogeneous
group, with some motivated by high sensation-seeking needs, a better understanding
of these motivations can lead to more effective strategies of prevention
and treatment, according to etiology. Scourfield, J., Stevens, D.E., and
Merikangas, K.R. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37(6), pp. 384-392, 1996.
Gender Related Differences in Circumstances Surrounding Initiation
and Escalation of Alcohol and Other Substance Use/Abuse
A series of multivariate logistic regression models specifying the effects
of gender and other variables on the initiation and escalation of alcohol
and other substance use/abuse was estimated. The sample consisted of 6,074
young adults from a general population who participated in a longitudinal
study that began in 1971. The original target sample consisted of a random
sample of all seventh grade students (N=9,335) in the Houston Independent
School District. A follow-up study of these students in the 1980's, when
the subjects were in their mid-20's, resulted in the successful interview
of 6,074 subjects. After controlling for race, ethnicity, father's education,
and a tendency to over-or under endorse statements, the effects of gender
on circumstances surrounding initiation/escalation of binge drinking, marijuana
use, and use of other illicit drugs were found. The statistical analysis
indicated that males tended to show a need to enhance sense of self-importance
through use of alcohol and other substances and to report that they feel
more important or more powerful for having done it. In addition, males seek
social bonding through the use of alcohol or drugs. Females, however, resort
to alcohol and other substances because of personal problems such as having
a serious argument with a significant other, feeling angry at someone or
something, or having troubles too great to bear. Females' use of alcohol
or drugs for self-medication was also suggested by their greater tendency
to report use proximate to experiences of feeling down emotionally or feeling
worthless, and by their reports of feeling less depressed following use.
This research asserts that, in multivariate context, gender differentiation
is found in the perceptions of the circumstances surrounding the initiation
and escalation of substance use/abuse. Liu, X., and Kaplan, H. Gender-Related
Differences in Circumstances Surrounding Initiation and Escalation of Alcohol
and Other Substance Use/Abuse. Deviant Behavior, 17(1), pp. 71-106, 1996.
Moderating Effects of Gender on the Relationship Between Not Graduating
from High School and Psychological Dysfunction in Young Adulthood
This study compares the strength of the relationship between dropping
out of high school and subsequent changes in the latent construct "adult
psychological dysfunction". This relationship is considered separately
for males and females so that the moderating effect of gender on the impact
of not graduating from high school on psychological dysfunction in adulthood
can be examined. Thus, this study estimates two male-female sets of models,
and then estimates a third set of models that specifies the differential
effects of starting college on the psychological functioning of female and
male adolescents. The data for this analysis were collected from a longitudinal
study of young adolescents that was designed to determine the precursors
of a variety of deviant behaviors. The sample data were taken from the responses
obtained during the first (Time 1) and fourth (Time 4) waves of data collection
and produced a final sample N=4,681 (2,130 males and 2,551 females). The
raw data were used as input for LISREL VII to estimate the structural models.
Results from the first and second models suggest a negative effect of not
graduating on psychological functioning for both male and female students.
Results from the third analysis indicate gender effects such that adult
psychological dysfunction is more likely to be negatively related to college
attendance for females than it is for males. This research illustrates the
importance of gender specific effects of high school graduation and college
attendance on adult psychological dysfunction. Kaplan, D.S., Damphouse,
K.R., and Kaplan, H.B. Moderating Effects of Gender on the Relationship
Between Not Graduating from High School and Psychological Dysfunction in
Young Adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), pp. 760-774,
1996.
Women Convicted of Homicide had Drug Use Histories Similar to Men
Convicted of Homicides
In a sample of 589 women convicted of homicide, 70% reported being regular
users of drugs and alcohol prior to committing the homicide. The women were
also as likely as male convicts to have long criminal histories of violent
and non-violent crimes and to have been involved in the crack trade business.
Spunt, B., Brownstein, H., Crimmins, S., et al. Drugs and Homicide by Women.
Substance Use and Abuse, 31(7), pp. 825-845, 1996.
Young Adult Drug Use and Delinquency: Childhood Antecedents and Adolescent
Mediators
The aims of this study were to examine the childhood, early adolescent,
and late adolescent predictors of young adult drug use and delinquency;
and to explore the effects of drug use on delinquent behavior. Data were
gathered during the course of a 20-year longitudinal study of children representative
of the Northeast. Data were gathered on childhood aggression, early and
late adolescent drug use and delinquency, and young adult drug use and delinquency.
Overall, the results were consistent with the proposed model. Drug use and
delinquency during early and late adolescence served as the mediator between
childhood aggression and young adult drug use. Adolescent drug use was associated
with later delinquency. The findings indicated that childhood aggression
was related to both young adult drug use and delinquency. Second, there
was stability of drug use and delinquency between early adolescence and
young adulthood. Third, drug use during early adolescence had an impact
on delinquency not only in early adolescence, but also in late adolescence
and young adulthood. The findings suggest that a decrease in drug use during
adolescence should go a long way to decreasing delinquency in early and
late adolescence and in young adulthood. Brook, J.S., Whiteman, M., Finch,
S.J., and Cohen, P. Young Adult Drug Use and Delinquency: Childhood Antecedents
and Adolescent Mediators. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent
Psychiatry, 35(12), pp. 1584-1592, 1996.
A Structural Model of Dropout Behavior: A Longitudinal Analysis
Using four wave panel data, a theoretically informed structural model
of junior high school antecedents of high school dropout behavior is estimated.
The model specifies a linkage between negative school experiences, both
academic and disciplinary, and later dropout behavior that is mediated by
self derogation in a school context and a contranormative behavior including
both avoidant/ withdrawal and deviant acting out behavior. The data for
this analysis were drawn from a four-wave panel study of all of the seventh
grade students in a random half of the 36 junior high schools of the Houston
Independent School District in 1971. The students were again tested in 1972
(Time 2), 1973 (Time 3), and in the 1980's (Time 4). A total of 2,428 students
were present for all four tests, after a listwise deletion of missing values
for those present, the final N=1,714. Estimation of the model provided strong
support for the theoretically predicted relationship between students' self-rejecting
feelings in a school setting, stimulated by their negative academic experiences,
and their likelihood of dropping out of high school within three to five
years. The relationship is mediated by truancy behavior during junior high
school, and the relationship still holds after introducing control variables.
In general, this study illustrates the important finding that patterns of
academic failure and deviant behavior are established early for some students
and that monitoring and intervention, if necessary, of students might reduce
dropout behavior. Kaplan, D.S., Peck, B.M., and Kaplan, H.B. A Structural
Model of Dropout Behavior: A Longitudinal Analysis. Applied Behavioral Science
Review, 3(2), pp. 177-193, 1996.
School-Dropout Distortions in Adolescent Substance Use Rates Greater
for Native Americans and Hispanics than for Non-Hispanic Whites
Researchers at the Tri-Ethnic Center for Prevention Research at Colorado
State University examined how including data on drug use by school dropouts
can alter estimates of adolescent drug use rates, and how the effects of
dropouts vary across racial/ethnic groups represented in that Center. Rates
of self-reported lifetime and past-30-day substance use were obtained from
Mexican American, White non-Hispanic, and Native American students (n =
738) and dropouts (n = 774). Rates for the age cohort (students and dropouts)
were estimated with a weighted correction formula. Rates of use reported
by dropouts were 1.2 to 6.4 times higher than those reported by students.
Rates of dropping out are higher for American Indians and Hispanics than
for White non-Hispanics, and correction for dropouts differentially affects
estimates for the respective groups. When only in-school data are available,
errors in estimating drug use among groups with high rates of school dropout
can be substantial. Correction of student-based data to include drug use
of dropouts leads to important changes in estimated levels of drug use and
alters estimates of the relative rates of use for racial/ethnic minority
groups with high dropout rates. Swaim, R.C., Beauvais, F., Chavez, E.L.,
and Oetting, E.R. The Effect of School Dropout Rates on Estimates of Adolescent
Substance Use Among Three Racial/Ethnic Groups. American Journal of Public
Health, 87(1), pp. 51-55, 1997.
Racial/Ethnic Variations in Validity of Self-Report of Smoking
In a study using both self-report and a criterion physiological measure,
Drs. Wills and Cleary compared the validity of self-reports of smoking across
racial/ethnic groups and concluded that the lower smoking rates reported
for African-American adolescents are real and are not substantially a consequence
of reporting artifacts. Previous research has raised a question about the
validity of self-report for African Americans. In this study, self-report
of cigarette smoking was obtained together with a measure of carbon monoxide
from expired air. Convergence between self-reported smoking and the biochemical
measure was analyzed separately for three ethnic groups at 7th grade, 8th
grade, 9th grade, and 10th grade. Analyses indicated that the validity of
self-reports of smoking was generally comparable across ethnic groups. Sensitivity
and specificity were comparable with data reported in recent meta-analyses.
Though sensitivity was slightly lower for minority adolescents than for
White adolescents, prevalence rates corrected for group differences in sensitivity
showed significantly lower smoking rates for African-American and Hispanic
adolescents than for White adolescents. Wills, T.A. and Cleary, S.D. The
Validity of Self-Reports of Smoking: Analyses by Race/Ethnicity in a School
Sample of Urban Adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 87(1), pp.
56-61, 1997.
Differences in Thinking Versus Behavior in Middle and High School
Females Concerning Drug Use and Eating Disorders
To evaluate differences as a function of age in middle-school versus
high school females in terms of drug use and eating disorders a survey of
more than 2,000 young women showed no significant differences across many
risk behaviors; use of tobacco, alcohol, cocaine, diet pills, supplements,
vitamins, self-induced vomiting or intent to use any of these in the future.
However, these females did differ significantly in that the younger females
displayed less knowledge of the adverse consequences of these behaviors,
they perceived less prevalence of these behaviors among their peers, and
expressed less belief in the media. While prevention programs for high school
girls may be too late to deter experimentation, the results of this study
underscore the need for intervention at an earlier age; at a time when critical
knowledge items and attitudes are not yet firmly established. Clarke, G.,
Goldberg, L, Moe, E., Poole, L., and Witherrite, T. Young Women's Disordered
Eating and Drug Use: Do Middle and High School Students Differ? To be presented
at the American College of Sports Medicine, Denver, May 1997 and published
in Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Vol. 29-S, 1997.
High Rates of Drug and Alcohol Use Found Among Women Who Kill Children
Researchers in New York City interviewed 42 imprisoned women who were
convicted for killing children. The majority of women (67%) reported using
drugs and/or alcohol 3 or more days per week for a month. Most commonly
used drugs were marijuana (by 26% of the women), alcohol (by 19%), and tranquilizers
(by 17%). Sixty percent of the sample also reported coming from homes where
drugs/alcohol were used daily. Crimmins, S., Langley, S., Brownstein, H.H.,
and Spunt, B. Convicted Women Who Have Killed Children. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 12(1), pp. 49-69, 1997.
Factors Associated with a History of Firearm Injuries in Juvenile
Drug Traffickers and Violent Juvenile Offenders
Firearm injuries have reached epidemic proportions with both juvenile
and adult correctional populations. Relatively little is known, however,
about the individual and community factors associated with an increased
risk for violence in offender populations. Understanding these correlates
of violent victimization would represent the first step in the identification
of putative risk factors; permitting the development of meaningful and effective
prevention programs. The primary objective of the present study was to develop
a model of individual and community factors associated with firearm injury
prevalence in a sample of incarcerated juvenile drug traffickers (N=217),
and violent juvenile offenders (N=239). The results indicated that the pattern
of offending, drug selling or violence, was important in determining the
particular factors associated with firearm injuries in juvenile offenders.
The results were consistent with the hypothesis that juvenile drug traffickers
may have been injured as a result of a general inability to function effectively
within the drug trafficking arena, or adequately judge victimization. The
profile that emerged for the injured violent offenders suggested that they
may have precipitated a violent attack through an aggressive interfactional
style, or the predatory nature of their offending. A preliminary review
of community variables indicated that the firearm injury prevalence for
the two different offender groups varied across locality, again suggesting
that community or environmental factors may interact with offending in defining
the overall risk or injury. McLaughlin, C.R., Reiner, S.M., Smith, B.W.,
Waite, D.E., Reams, P.N., Joost, T.F., and Gervin, A.S. Factors Associated
with a History of Firearm Injuries in Juvenile Drug Traffickers and Violent
Juvenile Offenders. Free Inquiry - Special Issue: Gangs, Drugs and Violence,
24(2), p. 157, 1996.
Female Drug Injectors are Often Peripheral Members of Drug Injection
Networks
Female injection drug users (IDUs) reported their usual link to drug
injection networks to be by way of their male IDU sex partner. The peripheral
or subordinate network positions of women IDUs may explain why they often
engage in high risk behaviors. Su, S.S. and Gerstein, D. Understanding Barriers
to Positive Behavioral Changes Among Injection Drug Users: A Social Network
Approach. Paper presented at the International Sunbelt Social Network Conference,
Charleston, SC, 1996.
Children Learn to Model Aggression and Violent Behavior of Adult Crack
Sellers/ Abusers
A large ethnographic study was conducted to identify and describe the
intergenerational processes by which behaviors are modeled, learned, and
practiced. Researchers studied one large kin network in Harlem where the
adults used alcohol, crack, and other illicit drugs and were actively involved
in the drug trade. In this family system, the children observed that adults
often fought over drugs or money and feuded while under the influence of
crack and alcohol. They used aggression and violence against family members
as retribution or punishment for previous aggressive and violent acts. Aggressive
language and excessive profanity were routine adult behaviors and a major
means of communication; jokes and insults led to arguments, often followed
by fights. Most adults who had been abused physically or sexually as children
did the same to their own. Children in this large family rarely obtained
special attention and support, and had almost no opportunity to learn nonaggressive
patterns. Instead, the children learned to model adult behaviors, such that
the intergenerational transmission of aggression and violence was well established
in this kin network. Dunlap, E., Johnson, B.D., and Rath, J. Aggression
and Violence in Households of Crack Sellers/Abusers. Applied Behavioral
Science Review, 4(2), pp. 191-217, 1996.
Powerlessness, Exploitation, and Degradation of Women in the Inner-City
Crack Culture
Ethnographic studies of female crack sellers and commercial sex workers
were conducted in New York City. Almost all of the women came from poor,
precariously housed families and most had lost support from their families
and friends because of their crack use. Single Room Occupancy or "welfare"
hotels and shelters were viewed as criminogenic and dangerous. A few of
the women "slept rough" or squatted curbside, but usually with
a man. The most common alternative living arrangement of these women was
with an older man with a dependable income for a period of time. In exchange,
women typically provided the men with sex, drugs, domestic services, or
companionship. Several women avoided crackhouses and shooting galleries
by living in so-called "freakhouses" with other women, where they
would provide entertainment and sex to men in exchange for crack and other
drugs. Although these women of the inner-city crack culture were typically
impoverished -- without a regular place to live, sleep, bathe, eat, and
store their possessions -- they were rarely homeless and living on the streets.
Rather, they tended to find alternative living arrangements which reinforced
their powerlessness and reflected their high levels of sexual exploitation
and degradation. Maher, L., Dunlap, E., Johnson, B., and Hamid, A. Gender,
Power, and Alternative Living Arrangements in the Inner-City Crack Culture.
Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 33(2), pp. 181-205, 1996.
Exposure to Adult Substance Use as a Risk Factor in Adolescent Substance
Use Onset: Part I
Little is known about the nature of parental influence on the initiation
of drug use and subsequent rates of progression through increasingly more
advanced stages of substance use. This study suggests that substance use
by important adults is a potent risk factor for adolescent substance use
experimentation. The risk appears to hold least for tobacco, an intermediate
amount for alcohol, and most for marijuana. There is a risk associated with
exposure to any one, any two, or all three substances. This report outlines
a study designed to assess the impact of exposure to adult substance use
on adolescents' progression through increasingly more advanced stages of
substance use. Latent Transition Analysis was used to estimate the probabilities
of adolescents' belonging to each of nine progressively more advanced stages
of adolescent substance use conditional on exposure to adult substance use
at each of three times of measurement. Additionally, the probabilities of
adolescents moving from one stage in the onset process to another were estimated,
conditional on adult substance use. The results show that adolescents reporting
exposure to adult use of alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana are more likely
to be further advanced in the onset process at each of the junior high school
years, grades 7 through 9. The results for exposure to adult use of marijuana
are most pronounced. Tracy, A.J., Collins, L.M., and Graham, J.W. Exposure
to Adult Substance Use as a Risk Factor in Adolescent Substance Use Onset:
Part I. The Methodology Center Technical Report Number 97-13, College of
Health and Human Development, The Pennsylvania State University, 1997.
Volatile Solvent Use: Patterns by Gender and Ethnicity Among School
Attenders and Dropouts
Differences in patterns of volatile solvent use were explored using self
report, with specific focus on the relationship to school enrollment status
-- dropout, enrolled but academically at-risk, and control. The sample included
American Indian, Mexican American and White American youth. Findings indicated
that a higher proportion of the dropout cohort have used volatile solvents,
used them regularly and with more intensity than the other two groups. There
was also an interaction between gender and ethnicity. Bates, S.C., Plemons,
B.W., Thurman-Jumper, P., and Beauvais, F. Volatile Solvent Use: Patterns
by Gender and Ethnicity Among School Attenders and Dropouts. Drugs and Society
10( ), pp. 59-75, 1997.
Timing of Paternal Substance Use Disorder Cessation and Effects on
Sons' Problem Behavior
Investigators at the Center for Education and Drug Abuse Research (CEDAR)
at the University of Pittsburgh report research suggesting that the sensitive
period for the influence of fathers' substance use disorder (SUD) on sons'
behavioral problems starts when the sons are around six years old. In an
examination of the developmental timing of effects of paternal SUD offset
on internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors in prepubertal sons,
no differences were found between sons of control (SUD-) fathers (n=92 father-son
pairs) and SUD+ fathers (n=149 father-son pairs) whose SUD ended before
the son's sixth birthday. However, when paternal SUD extended beyond the
boys' sixth year, significant increases in these types of problem behaviors
were found. These results suggest the importance of early intervention to
reduce paternal SUD in order to prevent intergenerational transmission of
behavioral problems, and of substance abuse, given that externalizing behavioral
problems in male children and adolescents are among the best predictors
of subsequent substance abuse in early and late adolescence. Moss, HB; Clark,
DB; and Kirisci, L. Timing of Paternal Substance Use Disorder Cessation
and Effects of Problem Behaviors in Sons. American Journal on the Addictions,
6(1), pp. 30-37, 1997.
Modeling the Etiology of Adolescent Substance Use: A Test of the Social
Development Model
The social development model is a general theory of human behavior that
seeks to explain antisocial behaviors through specification of predictive
developmental relationships. It incorporates the effects of empirical predictors
("risk factors" and "protective factors") for antisocial
behavior and attempts to synthesize the most strongly supported propositions
of control theory, social learning theory, and differential association
theory. This article examines the power of social development model constructs
measured at ages 9 to 10 and 13 to 14 to predict drug use at ages 17 to
18. The sample of 590 is from the longitudinal panel of the Seattle Social
Development Project, which in 1985 sampled fifth grade students from high
crime neighborhoods in Seattle, Washington. Structural equation modeling
techniques were used to examine the fit of the model to the data. Although
all but one path coefficient were significant and in the expected direction,
the model did not fit the data as well as expected (CFI = .87). The researchers
next specified second-order factors for each path to capture the substantial
common variance in the constructs' opportunities, involvement, and rewards.
This model fit the data well (CFI = .90). The researchers conclude that
the social development model provides an acceptable fit to predict drug
use at ages 17 to 18. Implications for the temporal nature of key constructs
and for prevention are discussed. Catalano, R.F., Kosterman, R., Hawkins,
J.D., Newcomb, M.D., and Abbott, R.D. Modeling the Etiology of Adolescent
Substance Use: A Test of the Social Development Model. Journal of Drug Issues,
26, pp. 429-455, 1996.
Ethnic Differences in the Psychosocial Antecedents of Needle/Syringe
Disinfection
Although injection drug users have responded to the AIDS crisis by reducing
their behavioral risks to some degree, the prevalence of needle sharing
is still alarmingly high. Also, few injection drug users report disinfecting
their needles and syringes on a consistent basis. To identify possible psychosocial
leverage points for behavioral change, a longitudinal study was used to
apply the AIDS Risk Reduction Model to assess ethnic differences in needle/syringe
disinfection by 209 injection drug users. Psychosocial antecedents included
perceived risk, peer norms, AIDS knowledge, response efficacy, self-efficacy,
and intentions to disinfect needles. Outcome was disinfection attempts at
follow-up. Among Whites, high perceived self-efficacy for risk reduction
had a positive effect on subsequent disinfection attempts. Among African
Americans and Mexican Americans, peer norms favorable to risk reduction
had a positive effect on subsequent disinfection attempts, while self-efficacy
had no effect. Results suggest that risk-reduction capabilities may be rooted
in "individualistic" perceptions of the self among white drug
users, while "collective self" perceptions may have more impact
in specific ethnic groups. The results demonstrated the utility and importance
of comparing models of behavior change across ethnic groups. Longshore,
D., Stein, J.A., Anglin, M.D. Ethnic Differences in the Psychosocial Antecedents
of Needle/Syringe Disinfection. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 42, pp. 183-196,
1996.
Needle-Sharing: A Longitudinal Study of Psychosocial Risk and Protective
Factors
The authors examined the psychosocial correlates of needle-sharing behavior
at two points in time by use of a prospective longitudinal design. Subjects
were 278 male intravenous drug users, 111 of whom were HIV-positive. All
subjects were given structured questionnaires by trained, ethnically matched
interviewers. Pearson correlation coefficients (rs) and hierarchical regression
analysis were done to examine interrelationships among time 1 (T1) psychosocial
domains, T1 needle-sharing, and time 2 (T2) needle-sharing. T1 psychosocial/personality
factors predicting T2 needle-sharing included unconventionality, poor emotional
control, and poor intrapsychic functioning. The relationship of T1 needle-sharing
to T2 needle-sharing was buffered by the T1 psychosocial protective factors.
The findings supported a mediational model, in which personality and peer
factors predicted T1 needle-sharing, which served as the mediator for T2
needle-sharing. These findings have important implications for intervention.
Thus, an intervention earlier in the sequence might focus on the personality
and friendship networks at T1, whereas an intervention a little later in
the developmental sequence would focus on altering T1 needle-sharing behavior.
Earlier therapeutic interventions focusing on personality disposition, family
alienation, or peer group affiliations should reduce the risk of later needle-sharing
behavior. Brook, D.W., Brook, J.S., Whiteman, M., Wynn, P.S., Masci, J.R.,
Roberto, J., de Catalogne, J., Amundsen, F. Needle-Sharing: A Longitudinal
Study of Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors. The American Journal
on Addictions, 5(3), pp. 209 219, 1996.
Eating Pathology among Women with Alcoholism and/or Anxiety Disorders
Two hundred one non-treatment seeking women with alcoholism, anxiety
disorders, alcoholism and anxiety disorders, or neither alcoholism nor anxiety
disorders were interviewed to assess core psychopathology associated with
eating disorders using the Eating Disorders Examination and DSM-IIIR psychiatric
diagnosis. Alcoholic women had significantly higher mean scores on each
of the Eating Disorders Examination subscales of Restraint, Overeating,
Eating Concern, Shape Concern, and Weight Concern compared with nonalcoholic
women. Women with anxiety disorders had significantly elevated scores on
subscales of Overeating, Eating Concern, and Weight Concern compared with
women without anxiety disorder. Women with both alcoholism and anxiety disorders
had higher rates of bulimia nervosa and/or eating disorder NOS compared
with women with either disorder alone. Implications of these findings are
discussed in the context of the co-morbid association between alcoholism,
eating disorders, and anxiety disorders. Sinha, R., Robinson, J., Merikangas,
K., Wilson, G. T., Rodin, J., O'Malley, S. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 20(7),
pp. 1184-1191, 1996.
Comorbidity of Alcoholism and Anxiety Disorders
People with alcoholism frequently also suffer from an anxiety disorder.
The mechanisms underlying this comorbidity remain unclear. Clinical findings
indicate that anxiety disorders may lead to the development of alcoholism.
Conversely, alcoholism may contribute to the development of anxiety symptoms.
Family studies have reported elevated rates of anxiety disorders in the
relatives of patients with alcoholism and vice versa, suggesting that both
disorders may share some susceptibility factors. The Yale Family Study of
the comorbidity of alcoholism and anxiety confirmed these observations.
The study also found gender-specific differences in the risk for some comorbid
anxiety disorders. Moreover, the relatives of people with alcohol dependence
or anxiety were at increased risk for alcohol dependence but not alcohol
abuse. Merikangas, K.R., Stevens, D., Fenton, B. Alcoholism and Anxiety
Disorders, 20(2), pp. 100-106, 1996.
Discriminating Depression and Anxiety in Youth: A Role for Diagnostic
Criteria
To test the hypothesis that anxiety and depression in youth, as in adults,
become increasingly discriminable when youth meet criteria for an emotional
disorder, the study uses cross-sectional data at two points in time from
a large (n=776) community sample of youths, aged eight to twenty. Associations
between major depression disorders (overanxious, obsessive compulsive and
separation anxiety disorders, and social and simple phobias) are examined
by symptom scale and diagnosis. Anxiety and depression are moderately correlated,
and substantially comorbid by diagnostic category. Symptoms are more discriminable
among youth who meet criteria for a specific emotional disorder but more
highly associated among youths without such a diagnosis. This suggests that
in youth, as has been shown in adults, depression and anxiety become increasingly
discriminable as emotional psychopathology becomes more severe. Gurley,
D., Cohen, P., Pine, D.S., and Brook, J.S. Journal of Affective Disorders,
39, pp. 191-200, 1996.
Reexamining Gender Differences in Circumstances Surrounding Initiation
and Escalation of Binge Drinking
Hypotheses regarding gender differences in circumstances surrounding
the initiation/escalation of binge drinking were tested. It was hypothesized
in this study that due to socialization in accordance with gender-specific
norms, males will use/abuse alcohol out of a need to enhance their sense
of potency or self-importance. In contrast, females were hypothesized to
be more likely to resort to alcohol for personal and intrapsychic purposes.
The data used for this analysis were derived from a household interview
of a sample of young adults who were initially studied in 1971 (Time 1).
A follow-up study of these people in the 1980's (Time 2), resulted in a
successful interview of 6,074 subjects. Of these, 1,129 subjects reported
to have engaged in binge drinking sometime in their life. Listwise deletion
of missing values produced a final N=1,101. The circumstances that surround
initiation and escalation of binge drinking were measured by six scales.
In general the multiple regression analyses suggested a congruence between
observed gender differences in circumstances surrounding initiation and
escalation. Some additional observed differential effects of gender included,
level of drinking (light or heavy) and peer influence at the initial level
of drinking, but not escalating it. For escalation of binge drinking, no
gender-related effect on peer influence was observed. However, all other
gender-related effects continued to be observed at even greater levels.
The results also supported the conclusion that the gender related effects
are at least partially independent, although certain of the effects were
attenuated when other circumstances (scales) were included in the model.
Liu, X., and Kaplan, H.B. Reexamining Gender Differences in Circumstances
Surrounding Initiation and Escalation of Binge Drinking. International Journal
of Sociology and Social Policy, 16(5/6), pp. 26-51, 1996.
Stigma, Deviance, and Social Sanctions
This study tests the hypothesis that deviant acts are more likely to
evoke negative social sanctions if the person already is stigmatized. The
underlying assumption is that possessing a physical stigma defines the individual
as the occupant of a deviant master status. The subjects selected for this
analysis were drawn from seventh grade respondents in the Houston Independent
School District in the fourth wave of data collection in an on going panel
study. The initial size of the data set was 6,074. Deleting cases that did
not have any reports of committing one or more of the specified deviant
acts produced a final N=4,065. Multivariate logistic regression models were
estimated with the following control variables: frequency and intensity
of deviant acts, tendency to perceive rejection, gender, minority status,
and level of education. Partial support was obtained for the hypothesis
that individuals who have committed a deviant act will be more likely to
invite negative social sanctions if they have a stigma than if they do not
have a stigma. Stigma was found to significantly predict reports of having
a close call with the police or getting arrested because of a deviant act.
Stigma was not a statistically significant predictor for experiencing rejection
by a boy/girlfriend, parents, friends, or others who were important to them
as a result of committing a deviant act. Additionally, stigma was not found
to be a statistically significant predictor for serving time in jail or
prison because of the commission of a deviant act. In general, these results
suggest the synergistic influence of prior deviant master statuses and other
deviant responses on evoking negative social sanctions. Stiles, B.L., and
Kaplan, H.B. Stigma, Deviance, and Negative Social Sanctions. Social Science
Quarterly, 77(3), pp. 685-696, 1996.
Drug Abuse and Crime are Nurtured in Children Who Live in Crack-Abusing
Households
A case study was conducted of child-rearing practices in one large, highly
criminal and drug-abusing household/kin network in New York City. This case
study delineated the concrete expectations and actual practices -- called
conduct norms -- with which the household adults respond to or "nurture"
their children. Adults in crack-abusing households typically model deviant
activities and rarely engage in conventional behaviors. They rarely take
measures to protect their children from harm but are often the ones who
inflict the greatest harm. The conduct norms in these deviant households
are well designed to nurture anti-social children who later become juvenile
delinquents and adult criminals, drug abusers, and prostitutes. Johnson,
B., Dunlap, E., and Maher, L. Nurturing for Careers in Drug Abuse and Crime:
Conduct Norms for Children and Juveniles in Crack-Abusing Households. Substance
Use and Abuse, In press.
Factors Mediating Effects of Parental Support on Adolescents' Substance
Use
Researchers at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine examined factors
mediating the effects of parental emotional and instrumental support on
adolescents' use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana. Data were obtained
from a sample of 1,702 adolescents surveyed beginning in the 7th grade and
continuing in the 8th and 9th grades. At each assessment, parental support
was found to be inversely related to substance use, and stress-buffering
interactions were observed throughout. Structural modeling analyses indicated
the effect of parental support was mediated through multiple pathways. In
general, however, the major mediators were higher levels of behavioral coping
and academic competence and less tolerance for deviance and behavioral undercontrol;
these mediators were related to negative life events and deviant peer affiliations.
Multiple-group analyses suggested buffering effects occurred because high
support reduced the effect of risk factors and increased the effect of protective
factors. Results of this study support the position that enhanced coping
ability is an important mechanism through which social support contributes
to adjustment. Wills, T.A., and Cleary, S.D. How Are Social Support Effects
Mediated? A Test with Parental Support and Adolescent Substance Use. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology (5), pp. 937-952, 1996.
Juvenile Drug Traffickers: Characterization and Substance Use Patterns
Drug trafficking has become one of the dominant issues facing the criminal
justice system. Juveniles involved in drug trafficking have been reported
to be far more likely to be seriously immersed in substance abuse and delinquent
behavior than nonsellers. The primary aim of the present study was to examine
the substance use patterns of juveniles incarcerated for drug trafficking
offenses in the Commonwealth of Virginia (N=240). A second goal of the study
was to characterize juvenile drug traffickers based upon additional information
pertaining to their delinquent, social, psychological, educational and medical
histories. For this purpose a demographic comparison group was generated
(N=433). The results indicated that the most frequently sold substance was
cocaine (93%), either powdered or crack, while alcohol and marijuana were
the drugs most often used by the juvenile drug traffickers. The juvenile
drug traffickers were associated with lower levels of aggressivity, violence
and delinquency when compared to other incarcerated juveniles from their
community. In addition, the juvenile drug traffickers were characterized
by higher ratings in several areas which included social and psychological
functioning. Areas that did not correlate well with drug trafficking were
physical health, intellectual functioning and academic achievement. The
results of this study indicated that juvenile drug traffickers tend not
to use the drugs that they sell, and generally present as higher functioning
and better adjusted in almost every area evaluated, when compared to their
incarcerated delinquent peers. McLaughlin, C.R., Smith, B.W., Reiner, S.M.,
Waite, D.E., and Glover, A.W. Juvenile Drug Traffickers: Characterization
and Substance Use Patterns. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 24(1), p.
3, 1996.
Risk and Protective Factors for Drug Use: Etiological Considerations
This conceptual chapter reviewed the literature in the field of the psychosocial
etiological contributions to adolescent drug use and abuse. It outlined
the domains of risk and protective factors which contribute to or lessen
the risk of drug use. The cultural/societal domain includes adverse economic
conditions, neighborhood disorganization, and noxious physical and social
environments, as well as ethnicity and acculturation and the influence of
the media. The family domains comprise the parental marital relationship
domain, the parental drug use and personality domains, the parent-adolescent
relationship domain (including parental control variables) and the sibling
domain. The childhood and adolescent personality domains focus on aspects
of unconventionality, emotional control, personal functioning, and social
relatedness. Unconventionality, emphasizing sensation seeking, rebelliousness,
tolerance of deviance, and low school achievement, is an especially potent
predictor of later drug use. Genetic and physiological factors act as predisposing
elements on which the environmental and psychosocial forces act to produce
the phenotype of drug use/abuse. This is know as the "risk-diathesis
hypothesis." A mutually affectionate parent-adolescent relationship
is strongly protective against the risk factors for drug use. The presence
of protective factors can ameliorate the adverse effects of risk factors,
reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience. Alcohol and drug use are
stable behaviors over time, although adolescents tend to progress through
stages of use, from legal to illicit drugs. Almost all drug use begins before
the age of 21, and tends to be related to other deviant behavior. Substance
abuse and psychopathology seem linked, as comorbidity is increasingly recognized,
and the link between drug use and crime is also fairly well-established.
Although drug use may continue well into adulthood, generally drug use lessens
with the increasing assumption of adult social roles. Principles of prevention
intervention include: (1) an early start, (2) education for parenting; (3)
the provision of adequate social and economic resources; (4) adequate health
care; (5) enhancing educational goals; (6) using a multi-disciplinary approach
to enhance protective factors and decrease risk factors. Brook, J.S., and
Brook, D.W. Risk and Protective Factors for Drug Use: Etiological Considerations.
In: C.B. McCoy, L.R. Metsch, J.A. Inciardi (Eds.), Intervening with Drug
Involved Youth, pp. 23-44, 1996. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Deviancy Training in Male Adolescent Friendships
The conversations of 186 adolescent boys ages 13-14 and their friends
were videotaped and analyzed to understand the processes of influence associated
with antisocial behavior. Sequential analyses revealed a statistically reliable
reciprocal pattern between Rule-Breaking talk and Laugh in the delinquent
(both boys arrested) dyads, whereas in the mixed (one arrested) and nondelinquent
(neither arrested) dyads, reciprocation occurred between Normative talk
and Laugh. Longitudinal analyses of the boys' behavior over 2 years revealed
that the deviancy training sequence was prognostic of increases in self-reported
delinquent behavior. The data have implications for intervention strategies
and policies involving antisocial youth. One implication is that interventions
should avoid aggregating high-risk youths in homogeneous groups. Dishion,
T.J., Spracklen, K.M., Andrews, D.W., and Patterson, G.R. Deviancy Training
in Male Adolescent Friendships. Behavior Therapy, 27, pp. 373-390, 1996.
Environmental Manipulation Alters Drug Efficacy
To further test the impact of different rearing environments on subsequent
behavioral and neurologic response to morphine, rats were raised from weaning
to young adulthood in either an enriched-EC (group housed with various novel
visual objects) or impoverished-IC (housed individually with no objects).
As adults, locomotor activity and reward produced by morphine was assessed
using the conditioned place preference paradigm (CPP). On Day 1, rats in
both groups showed an inverted U-shaped dose effect curve for locomotor
activity though the effect was greater for IC than the EC group. Across
days, both groups showed locomotor sensitization; although again, the effect
was greatest in the IC group. However, in contrast, morphine-induced CPP
(the measure of 'reward') was attenuated in the IC group when compared to
the EC group indicating that the locomotor versus rewarding effects were
dependent on different neural substrates. Measurement of mu opioid receptor
density and rates of dopaminergic synthesis in the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal
systems of rats from each group showed no difference between IC or EC groups.
Therefore, it was concluded that while these receptors do modulate mesolimbic
dopamine neurotransmission this does not account for the differential behavioral
effects seen in the IC group relative to the EC group. Bardo, M.T., Robiner,
P.M., and Hammerd, R.F. Effect of Differential Rearing Conditions of Morphine-Induced
Behaviors, Opioid Receptors and Dopamine Synthesis. Neuropharmacology, In
press.
The Impact of a Localized Antidrug Media Campaign Associated with
Adolescent Drug Use
The purpose of the study was to determine whether local antidrug campaigns
can affect variables associated with adolescent drug use. An experiment
was conducted with sets of matched communities with populations between
5,000 and 30,000 distributed throughout the United States. Seven through
twelfth grade students in the experimental communities were exposed to a
year long media campaign. On a follow-up survey, recall of the media campaign
was low. Adolescents with low and moderate levels of drug use who recalled
individual campaign flights showed beneficial effects on targeted variables
in comparison with students who did not recall the campaigns and control
students who were not exposed to the campaign. The authors suggest comparing
a media campaign alone with that of a media campaign combined with interpersonal
or school-based curriculums. Kelly, K.J., Swaim, R.C. and Wayman, J.C. The
Impact of a Localized Antidrug Media Campaign on Targeted Variables Associated
with Adolescent Drug Use. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 15(2),
pp. 238-251, 1996.
Is Current Drug Abuse Prevention Programming Generalizable Across
Ethnic Groups?
Considerable progress has been made over the past two decades in identifying
effective drug abuse prevention strategies. In particular, much support
has been obtained for the effectiveness of a comprehensive social influences
approach to drug abuse prevention. Given the inclusion of fundamental social
psychological principles in comprehensive programs, it is possible that
currently developed drug abuse prevention programming is generalizable to
different ethnic groups. However, the empirical and theoretical evidence
is equivocal regarding the extent to which this is true. In this article,
the authors present arguments for (lack of supply or inadequate access,
lack of demand, differences in acquisition variables, and inappropriate
timing) and against (successful program show results across groups, interactive
programs incorporate group differences, similar initiation patterns across
groups, and societal and programmatic costs) the need to develop drug abuse
prevention programs specifically for minority ethnic groups. Dent, C.W.,
Sussman,S., Ellickson, P., Brown, P., and Richardson, J. Is Current Drug
Abuse Prevention Programming Generalizable Across Ethnic Groups? American
Behavioral Scientist, 39(7), pp. 911-918, June 1996.
The Timing and Severity of Antisocial Behavior: Three Hypotheses Within
an Ecological Framework
The goal of this chapter is to render an environmental explanation for
the timing and severity of child and adolescent antisocial behavior. Three
basic hypotheses are discussed: (1) The social interactional hypothesis;
(2) the marginal deviation hypothesis; and (3) the contextual sensitivity
hypothesis. Three features of a toxic social context are defined: poverty,
stigmatization and isolation, and deviant norms. The authors have found
that the impact of context on child adjustment is mediated through parenting
practices. The ecological framework is used to explain the developmental
patterns of childhood and adolescent-onset antisocial behavior. The authors
suggest a view of prevention and intervention that emphasizes harm reduction
and moves away from the disease model conceptualizations of antisocial behavior.
Dishion, T.J., and Patterson, G.R. The Timing and Severity of Antisocial
Behavior: Three Hypotheses Within an Ecological Framework. In Stoff, D.,
Breiling, J., and Maser, J. (Eds), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
Implicit Cognition in Adolescent Drug Use
Implicit cognitive responses to drug-use cues and drug outcomes, assessed
with measures of memory association, were studied in a sample of high risk,
White and Latino adolescents. The utility of these responses as predictors
of drug use was examined and compared with potentially confounding predictors,
including gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and acculturation. The
background variables also served as potential moderators of the effects
of implicit cognition. The results revealed that measures of memory association
were consistent, direct-effect predictors of marijuana and alcohol use.
In addition, these implicit cognitive measures were stronger predictors
than were the background variables, and their predictive effects were not
moderated by other variables. The results provide further support for the
implicit cognition perspective in drug use. Stacy, A.W., Ames, S., Sussman,
S.Y., and Dent, C.W. Implicit Cognition in Adolescent Drug Use. Psychology
of Addictive Behaviors, 10, pp. 190-203, 1996.
Children's Conceptions of AIDS and Related Risky Behavior
This is a seven year longitudinal study of children's understanding of
AIDS and beliefs, attitudes, norms, intentions and behaviors regarding cigarette,
alcohol and drug use, and sexual intercourse and condom use. The longitudinal
sample of 1,173 students was first surveyed in 1992 when they were in grades
3, 4, 5, and 6. Fifty one percent of the sample are girls, 47% are white,
24% African American, 20% Asian American, and 9% of other ethic backgrounds.
The most recent publication examines the applicability of Fishbein and Ajzen's
(1975) Theory of Reasoned Action to intentions to use cigarettes and alcohol
among 5th- and 6th- grade students. The researchers examined the relationships
among beliefs, norms, attitudes and intentions to smoke and drink in these
students who were in 5th and 6th grade at the Time 1 (1992) survey, and
examined the relationship of Time 1 intentions to self-reported behavior
at Time 2 (1993). Beliefs and norms about these behaviors were multidimensional.
Analyses revealed the following dimensions: For drinking; positive outcomes
(e.g., feeling happy); negative outcomes (e.g., feeling sick), parents norm;
and friends norm. For smoking; positive outcomes, (e.g., feel more grown
up); immediate negative outcomes (e.g., yellow teeth), long term negative
outcomes (e.g., hurt your lungs); parents norms; and friends norm. The Theory
of Reasoned Action describes these children's decision-making well. Children
with attitudes and norms more favorable to smoking or drinking were more
likely to intend to drink, and intentions to smoke and drink were positively
related to smoking or drinking in the next year. Morrison, D.D., Simpson,
E.E., Gillmore, M.R., Wells, E.A., and Hoppe, M.J. Children's Decisions
About Substance Use: An Application and Extension of the Theory of Reasoned
Action. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(18), pp. 1658-1679, 1996.
Novelty Seeking in Animals Further Linked to Brain Reward Centers
To further evaluate brain function and the role of specific centers on
drug use, voltammetric recordings were obtained from specific regions of
the forebrain in rats during operant maneuvering given free choice access
to a novel environment. Entry into novelty increased the catechol signal
in the medial prefrontal cortex and shell of nucleus acumbens by more than
100% when compared to baseline activity and this increase was only detected
during initial entry into the novel compartment and did not reoccur upon
reentry to the familiar environment. No consistent effect in either neostriatum
or the acumbal core was recorded. These results support increasing evidence
for a functional distinction between the acumbal core and shell with the
latter having been linked to brain reward mechanisms. The results also indicate
that novelty activates some of the neurochemical systems that appear to
play a critical role in the reinforcing effects of certain drugs of abuse.
Rebec, G.V, Grabner, C.P., Johnson, M, Pierce, R.C., and Bardo, M.T. Transient
Increases in Catecholamine Activity in Medial Cortex and Nucleus Acumbens
Shell During Novelty. Neuroscience, In press.
Drug Rehabilitation in China
The Yunnan Province in China may be experiencing the highest incidence
of heroin use in China, in part because of its proximity to the Golden Triangle.
This high incidence, as elsewhere, threatens to increase associated problems
in China, including the spread of HIV. Moreover, the high purity of heroin
used in this Province leads to rapid addiction and increased difficulties
in treating the symptoms of withdrawal. One response to this epidemic is
described in this article, namely, the development and implementation of
the Kunmung Drug Rehabilitation Center. The Center, with a capacity for
620 addicts, is grounded in a recovery-oriented perspective based on the
Therapeutic Community Model and modified for the Yunnan Province of China.
It is referred to as the Kunmung Model and is known for its own medicine
for detoxification and its individualized psychological, psychiatric, medical,
and biosocial program. Similarities and differences between the Kunmung
Center and treatment programs in the U.S. are discussed and implications
for universal approaches to drug treatment are addressed. McCoy, C., Lai,
S., Metsch, L. et al. No Pain No Gain, Establishing the Kunmung, China,
Drug Rehabilitation Center. Journal of Drug Issues, 27(1), pp. 73-85, 1997.
Psychometric Evaluation of a Health Risk and Anabolic Steroid Questionnaire
Psychometric properties of a questionnaire designed to assess health
risk and anabolic steroid use/intent to use in a population of high school
football players were evaluated. The questionnaire was created with the
competing goals of producing reliable and valid constructs while keeping
the length short enough to enable accurate and complete responding. Internal
consistency and test retest reliability as well as content, criterion-related
and construct validity were assessed. Overall, the questionnaire produced
reliable and valid outcome constructs, including intent to use steroids,
nutrition behaviors and strength training self-efficacy, and constructs
examining peer and nonpeer influence, as well as individual characteristics.
These constructs should prove useful in future studies of anabolic steroid
use and health behaviors. McKinnon, D.P., Goldberg, L., Lapin, A., Clarke,
G.N., Elliott, D.L., and Moe, E. Psychometric Properties of an Adolescent
Health Risk and Anabolic Steroid Questionnaire: The Adolescent Training
and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Project. Health Education Research,
In press.
Modeling Growth and Change Processes: Design, Measurement, and Analysis
for Research in Social Psychology
This chapter discusses design, measurement, and analysis issues relevant
to the study of growth and change in social psychological research. Individual
growth is taken as a starting point by arguing that the assessment of individual
growth is a necessary prerequisite to the assessment of interindividual
or group differences in growth. Discussed are the age, cohort, and time
perspective and its implications for research design. Other design issues
are considered including missing data and subject attrition, and measurement
effects. Results demonstrate that the timing of data collection is an important
and often neglected design consideration. Some new aspects of measurement
validity relevant to measurement of change are discussed. The shortcomings
of traditional measurement procedures when applied to the measurement of
change were reviewed, and a measurement model that incorporates a model
of change is presented. Finally, two frameworks for the statistical analysis
of change are discussed. Collins, L.M. and Sayer, A.G. Growth and Change
in Social Psychology Research: Design, Measurement, and Analysis. In H.
Reis and C. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of Research in Social Psychology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. In press.
Intrapersonal Contributors to Drug Use: The Willing Host
Although social environmental factors play a large role in the development
of substance use and abuse, other important contributors reside within the
individual. These intrapersonal factors help determine certain aspects of
the social environment, which may in turn alter the probability of drug
use and abuse. In addition, these intrapersonal factors alter chances of
initiation, the transition from initiation to regular use of a drug, and
the transition from regular drug use to problem use. These factors include
(but are not limited to) personality, cognition, affect, problem behaviors,
biogenetics, demographics, and bonding. The authors explore the potential
role of each of these intrapersonal factors in a larger, biopsychosocial
model of drug use and abuse. The authors also discuss the implications of
each of these factors for prevention. Newcomb, M.D. and Earleywine, M. Intrapersonal
Contributors to Drug Use: The Willing Host. American Behavioral Scientist,
39, pp. 823-837, 1996.
Employee Attitude Crystallization and Substance Use Policy: Test of
a Classification Scheme
Previous research suggests that employees are often unaware of or ambivalent
toward substance abuse policies. These studies focus on one policy component-drug
testing-and fail to distinguish employees with clear (or crystallized) from
unclear attitudes. The current study explored a broader view of policy and
examined both personal and situational factors that may determine attitudes.
Survey data from employees in three municipalities support a distinction
among five attitude categories; those who are: (a) dissatisfied with efforts
to control employee abuse, (b) satisfied, (c) anti-policy, (d) pro-policy,
and (e) uninformed. Discriminant analyses suggest that different profiles
characterize these attitude groups. For example, dissatisfied employees
report low personal alcohol use, high co-worker alcohol use, and low self-referral
whereas anti-policy employees report high personal drug use, high co-worker
use, and low job identity. Discussion focuses on policy as a social construction
and the implications of attitude distinctions for employee training. Bennett,
J.B., and Lehman, W.E.K. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(4), pp. 831-864, 1996.
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