A solution to the long-term management
of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level
radioactive waste (HLW) is vital to
ensure America’s national security,
support energy security, secure disposal
of nuclear waste, and provide for a
cleaner environment. In 2002, with
438 nuclear power facilities generating
electrical energy in 31 nations around
the world (see Figure
1), the management of radioactive
material, including SNF and HLW, has
become not just a U.S. concern, but
an international one as well. Like
the U.S., many of the world’s nuclear
nations have decided upon deep geologic
repositories as the long-term solution
for disposal of spent nuclear fuel
and high-level waste.
In July 2002, the U.S. Congress voted
to approve the recommendation by the
Secretary of Energy and the U.S. President
of Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as the site
for the nation's first geologic repository
for spent nuclear fuel and high-level
radioactive waste. The Secretary and
the President made their Site Recommendation
decisions from thousands of pages of
required documentation which were subjected
to extensive internal and external
reviews, including international peer
reviews by the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development's
Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA). On
July 23, 2002, after the Congressional
vote of approval, President Bush signed
the Yucca Mountain Resolution. On June 3, 2008,
DOE submitted
a license application to the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission to obtain authorization
to build a repository. The Yucca Mountain
project is directed by the U.S. Department
of Energy's Office of Civilian Radioactive
Waste Management (OCRWM), which has
responsibility for managing the disposition
of SNF produced by commercial nuclear
power facilities along with U.S. Government-owned
SNF and HLW. Much of the science conducted
through OCRWM involved collaboration
with other nations and international
organizations, and focused on resolving
issues associated with the disposition
of SNF and HLW.
OCRWM supports continued collaboration
among all nations involved in geologic
repository science and technology.
The information and expertise gained
through international collaboration
advances the overall knowledge base
of all nations, including OCRWM’s efforts
to determine the suitability of Yucca
Mountain, and it promotes international
understanding and consensus on radioactive
waste management issues.
OCRWM supports the exchange of information
and consensus development through cooperative
bilateral agreements with other nations
and participation in the activities
of international organizations and
multinational projects.
Over the past 20 years, OCRWM has
developed and implemented many cooperative
agreements with other nations in an
effort to share information on radioactive
waste management topics. The degree
of cooperation with other nations has
ranged from the exchange of technical
documents and personnel to full collaboration
in cost sharing for underground research
laboratories. The nations and organizations
with which OCRWM currently maintains
waste management agreements are shown
in Figure 2.
To promote international understanding
and develop consensus on radioactive
waste management issues, OCRWM became
a participant in programs and activities
sponsored by the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development/Nuclear
Energy Agency (OECD/NEA), the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the
International Association for Environmentally
Safe Disposal of Radioactive Materials
(EDRAM). During the early stages of
the OCRWM Program, a bilateral agreement
was also instituted with the Commission
of European Communities (CEC), along
with several multinational projects.
OECD/NEA:
OCRWM has been actively involved for
more than 20 years in activities of
the OECD/NEA’s Standing Committee on
Radioactive Waste Management (RWMC).
For many years, OCRWM has represented
the U.S. on the RWMC through coordination
of U.S. positions on waste management
issues of the Department of Energy,
the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and
the Environmental Protection Agency.
OCRWM’s current participation in the
activities of the RWMC include the
Integration Group for the Safety Case,
which is responsible for identifying
and investigating issues relevant to
the field of repository development
for long-lived radioactive waste; the
Forum on Stakeholders Confidence, which
focuses on public perception and confidence
issues; and the Thermochemical Data
Base, which develops, compiles and
reviews thermodynamic data for particular
radionuclides. The acquisition and
exchange of technological and scientific
information, particularly related to
complex issues dealing with performance
assessment, database development, and
peer review by experts of other participating
nations has significantly enhanced
OCRWM’s understanding of those types
of issues, and strengthened the understanding
and insight of technological and science-related
issues at Yucca Mountain.
IAEA:
OCRWM’s involvement in activities
of the IAEA focuses on spent fuel storage
and systems integration and includes
participation in the Advisory Group
on Spent Fuel Management, the spent
nuclear fuel burn-up credit project,
spent fuel performance assessment and
research activities, underground research
laboratory development activities,
and biosphere peer reviews. OCRWM has
significantly benefited from participation
in these activities, especially through
the exchange of information on resolving
scientific and technological issues
associated with storage, monitoring
and other topics of concern to Yucca
Mountain.
OCRWM has also undertaken joint endeavors
with both the NEA and the IAEA, including
the 1999 Department of Energy-sponsored
Conference on Geologic Repositories
held in Denver, Colorado and the recently
completed international peer review
of the Yucca Mountain Site Characterization
Project’s Total System Performance
Assessment for the Site Recommendation.
EDRAM:
OCRWM is an active participant in
the International Association for Environmentally
Safe Disposal of Radioactive Materials
(EDRAM). The purpose of the association
is to enhance international cooperation
by exchanging views on policy issues
and stimulating joint research and
development projects. Its 12 members
are senior level officials who are
responsible for waste management programs
in 11 nations. The nations represented
include Belgium, Canada, Finland, France,
Germany, Japan, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
the U.K., and the U.S.
CEC:
OCRWM participated in several activities
of the Commission of European Communities
(CEC), including the Natural Analogue
Working Group that dealt with incorporating
knowledge gained from natural analogue
systems into long-term understanding
of repository environments, and the
validation of geochemical models in
the CHEMVAL project.
OCRWM currently participates in the
multinational DECOVALEX Project, which
focuses on coupled thermal, hydrologic,
mechanical, and chemical processes
of importance to radionuclide release
and transport, and provides an opportunity
for peer review for code developers
along with the exchange of laboratory
and field data for validation purposes.
In addition, OCRWM is an active participant
in the International Working Group
on Sabotage Studies, an international
forum to exchange information on consequences
related to sabotage of certain types
of transport and storage systems used
for radioactive materials.
OCRWM also participates in the OECD/NEA’s
GEOTRAP Project, a venue for exchanging
information on approaches for acquiring
field data, testing, and modeling transport
of radionuclides in geologic formations.
From the early 1980’s through 1991,
OCRWM participated in the OECD/NEA’s
International Stripa Project, which
involved joint activities by seven
to nine nations in an abandoned iron
mine in Central Sweden to develop prototype
methods, instruments and tests for
characterizing and evaluating sites
for geologic disposal. OCRWM gained
experience in design, testing, and
use of equipment and methods for underground
testing and modeling of data. OCRWM
also participated in the OECD/NEA sponsored
Alligator Rivers Analogue Project which
developed reliable and realistic radionuclide
migration models and methods of model
validation using laboratory and field
data.
Other international projects in which
OCRWM has participated include the
INTRACOIN, HYDROCOIN and INTRAVAL Projects,
which emphasized the verification and
validation of geosphere performance
assessment models. OCRWM also participated
in the Pocos de Caldas natural analogue
project in Brazil, which studied uranium
and thorium deposits as analogues for
processes related to a mined geologic
repository. OCRWM worked with the New
Zealand Institute for Geologic and
Nuclear Studies, using data from New
Zealand’s geothermal fields to test
and validate the geochemical models
used at Yucca Mountain and to test
its ability to simulate the behavior
of a silicic rock repository for regulatory
time periods.
COOPERATIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Prior to the development of Yucca
Mountain’s underground Exploratory
Studies Facility, OCRWM formulated
three cost-sharing research and development
projects under existing bilateral agreements
with Canada, Sweden, and Switzerland
to gain experience in the development
of underground laboratory research.
The outcome was a cost-effective transfer
of technology developed under those
tasks to the site characterization
work at Yucca Mountain. OCRWM also
has participated in technical assistance
agreements with South Korea, Taiwan,
and the newly Independent States of
the Former Soviet Union.
From the mid-1980’s to the mid-1990’s,
OCRWM worked closely with Atomic Energy
of Canada Limited (AECL) under two
subsidiary agreements. The agreements
included work on the shaft extension
of AECL’s Underground Research Laboratory
located in the Province of Manitoba,
planning for in-situ tests, surface-based
geologic characterization, and performance
assessment code transfer. Collaboration
with AECL also involved activities
in direct support of Yucca Mountain
site evaluation activities, including
site characterization and validation,
instrumentation and testing development,
radionuclide transport, sealing technology
and spent fuel dissolution modeling.
Collaboration was also conducted with
Sweden’s Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management
Company (SKB), with OCRWM participating
in technical activities at SKB’s Hard
Rock Laboratory in southern Sweden
beginning in 1992. Joint cooperative
activities included improving the understanding
of specific key processes relevant
to repository performance, validation
of specific models on data collection
procedures, and optimization of site
characterization methods related to
flow and transport in fractured rock.
Field and laboratory data for geochemical
modeling was collected by SKB, acquired
by OCRWM, and provided a unique source
of high quality hydrologic and chemical
data for testing techniques and models.
OCRWM developed three project agreements
with Switzerland’s National Cooperative
for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste
(NAGRA) and performed joint technical
activities at NAGRA’s underground Rock
Laboratory located in the Swiss Alps.
The joint work included the development
of a stochastic model for fracture
flow hydrology to be used in the U.S.
and Switzerland, and model development
and verification of hydrologic flow
in fractured rocks. Under this cooperative
relationship, new techniques were developed
and tested for bore hole fluid logging
and seismic tomographic characterization
of fracture zones as well as studies
to develop a mechanistic approach to
sorption.
More recently, in the late 1990’s,
under the bilateral agreement with
the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development
Institute, OCRWM developed two project
annexes to work cooperatively on near
field processes and engineered barrier
performance, and hazard analyses of
volcanic and seismic activity. On July
10, 2002 the DOE and Japan's new Nuclear
Waste Management Organization (NUMO)
signed a bilateral agreement in the
area of radioactive waste management.
Section 223 of the Nuclear Waste Policy Act directed OCRWM to offer technical
assistance for a five-year period to non-nuclear weapons states in the areas
of spent fuel storage and disposal. OCRWM also participated in technical assistance
agreements with South Korea, Taiwan and the newly Independent States of the
Former Soviet Union for the purpose of supporting U.S. policy on non-proliferation
and enhancing U.S. competitiveness in nuclear technology in the Pacific Rim
area.
NEW INITIATIVES
OCRWM is developing expanded cooperative relationships with the Ministry of
Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation (MINATOM) and the Russian Academy of
Sciences (RAS). A bilateral agreement is under development with MINATOM and
two implementing arrangements have been signed with the RAS. The purpose is
to strengthen scientific and technical cooperation in the area of isolation
of radioactive waste and spent nuclear material in geologic repositories. New
bilateral agreements to share science and technology in the area of radioactive
waste management have also been initiated and are under development with Posiva
Oy of Finland and with UK Nirex of the United Kingdom. (See Figure
3.)
OCRWM is involved in the development
of an international forum for geologic
repository science and technology,
working with organizations located
in the Pacific Rim area. The purpose
of the forum is to provide an opportunity
to advance geologic repository science,
promote cooperative research, exchange
views and experiences, enhance public
outreach, and address regulatory, safety
assessment, and validation issues related
to geologic repositories.
OCRWM monitors developments abroad
to gather information and maintain
a cognizance of other waste management
efforts and developing technologies
being pursued by other nations and
private enterprises.
COORDINATION OF INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Implementation of OCRWM international
program activities requires coordination
and interaction with other Department
of Energy (DOE) components as well
as other government agencies to ensure
integration of international experience
into domestic program activities and
decision-making. OCRWM works closely
within the DOE with the Office of Policy
and International Affairs, and the
Office of Environmental Management
and the Carlsbad Field Office who manage
the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant. Coordination
also occurs with the Office of Nuclear
Energy, Science and Technology, Office
of General Counsel, Office of Management,
Budget and Evaluation, and the National
Nuclear Security Administration. In
addition, OCRWM interacts with the
Department of State, the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, the Environmental Protection
Agency, and the National Academy of
Sciences.
OVERVIEW STATUS OF OTHER NATIONS
SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL AND HIGH-LEVEL
RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL PROGRAMS
No country has an operating repository
for spent nuclear fuel or high-level
radioactive waste. The international
consensus is generally that permanent
geologic disposal of these wastes is
the best way to protect the public
health and safety and to protect and
restore the environment. It is also
recognized that a final repository
will be required regardless of fuel
cycle approaches, i.e., whether or
not reprocessing and recycling of spent
nuclear fuel is carried out. (See Figure
4 and Figure
5.)
All countries with major nuclear power
industries are in different stages
of development of their radioactive
waste management programs. The salient
features of the radioactive waste programs
of each of these countries are described
in Figure 5:
Last reviewed: 12/07
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