SPECIES: Sporobolus cryptandrus
Sand dropseed occurs from B.C. south to southern California and New Mexico, and east to Ontario, Quebec, and Maine and most of the U.S. except for the extreme southeast [62]. Sand dropseed also occurs in Mexico and southern Canada [59].
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
AK | AZ | AR | CA | CO | CT |
DE | HI | ID | IL | IN | IA |
KS | LA | ME | MD | MA | MI |
MN | MS | MO | MT | NE | NV |
NH | NJ | NM | NY | NC | ND |
OH | OK | OR | PA | RI | SD |
TX | UT | VT | VA | WA | WV | WI | WY | DC |
AB | BC | MB |
NB | ON | PQ |
MEXICO |
CO | MT | ND | UT | WY | |
Cattle | Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Domestic sheep | Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Poor |
Fair |
Horses | Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Fair |
Pronghorn | ---- |
Poor |
Poor |
Fair |
Poor |
Elk | ---- |
Poor |
---- |
Fair |
Good |
Mule Deer | ---- |
Poor |
Poor | Fair | Fair |
White-tailed deer | ---- | ---- | Poor | ---- | Poor |
Small mammals | Good | ---- | ---- | Good | Good |
Small nongame birds | Good | ---- | ---- | Fair | Good |
Upland game birds | ---- | ---- | Poor | Fair | Good |
Waterfowl | ---- | ---- | ---- | Poor | Poor |
Sand dropseed is rated fair in energy value and poor in protein [37]. As a winter forage species of the Great Basin, sand dropseed provides excellent nutrition but is deficient in phosphorus, carotene and protein [31].
Nutritional value for livestock in accordance with relative phenological stage is [94]:Aerial fresh, mature | Aerial without lower stem, fresh, mature | Aerial without lower stem fresh, dormant | |
Dry matter | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Ash | 6.3 | 9.4 | 9.3 |
Crude fiber | 36.7 | 33.3 | 36.3 |
Ether extract | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.1 |
N-free extract | 49.9 | 49.3 | 47.9 |
Protein (N × 6.25) | 5.7 | 6.4 | 5.5 |
Digestible protein | |||
cattle | 2.7 | 3.3 | 2.5 |
horses | 2.4 | 3.0 | 2.2 |
domestic goats | 1.9 | 2.5 | 1.7 |
domestic sheep | 2.3 | 2.9 | 2.1 |
Calcium | 0.30 | 0.32 | 0.40 |
Phosphorus | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.11 |
The degree to which sand dropseed provides cover for livestock and wildlife has been rated as follows [37]:
ND | UT | WY | |
Small mammals | ---- | Fair | Fair |
Small nongame birds | Good | Fair | Fair |
Upland game birds | Good | Fair | Poor |
Waterfowl | ---- | Poor | Poor |
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Seed source is an important consideration for any reseeding project involving sand dropseed. A strong similarity in morphology and phenological development is seen between seedlings and the parent [103,114]. Heritable ecotypic variation in plant height, crown area and the number of inflorescences has been correlated with growing season length; increases are seen from north to south and from high to low elevations [103].
Sand dropseed is recommended as a component of grass seed mixtures for sandy and heavy to semi-sandy soils of New Mexico rangelands [18]. Good results are seen reseeding dry low lands receiving less than 9 inches (230mm) of precipitation within rangelands of Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho and western Wyoming [102]. Prolific seed production and large contributions to the soil seed bank are consistent throughout the many habitats of sand dropseed and may be linked to the initiation of sand dropseed within denuded landscapes [32]. A pioneer plant in disturbed areas [24], sand dropseed is an invader of sandy soils especially over grazed and blown-out areas [51]. Establishment within areas previously under water stress is also seen [25]. Within areas suffering from water stress, sand dropseed is an early native recolonizer and shows quick recovery [34]. Reseeded stands on desert grassland ranges had slow development, but seedlings were persistent and drought resistant [6]. Sand dropseed's rooting system helps stabilize sand hills and dunes [16,99]. Several studies have evaluated sand dropseed under different mulching practices within rangelands. When reseeding, sand dropseed responds well to straw mulch [17,111]. In a desert grassland, sand dropseed had increased germination and survival 1st and 2nd growing season when barley straw mulch was used [111]. The following study [49] provides a summary of the effect of litter upon seed bank germination within Arizona chaparral. Results are the number of seedlings emerging from four flats of 2 square feet of soil over a 72-day watering period [49]:1Check | 2Burn | 3Removed | 4Scarify |
10 | 0 | 19 | 8 |
Abiotic and biotic environmental factors are important regulators of sand dropseed grazing response. Responses to grazing are variable, with increases, decreases and no changes reported [17,20,25,37,57,66,80,81,85,104,107,123,132]. A 59-year data set describing grazing responses in a shadscale community found sand dropseed coverage more responsive to climate and plant associates than grazing pressure. Increase in sand dropseed coverage corresponded spatially with lower coverage of winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata), shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia) and budsage (Artemisia spinescens) [5]. Sand dropseed response to domestic sheep winter grazing within the intermountain rangelands of Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and Nevada was directly related to the relative availability of other palatable grasses. An indirect relationship was seen between sand dropseed use and the presence of Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) [73]. A 12-year evaluation within the same region also found a direct positive response for sand dropseed to spring and summer precipitation [73]. Overall, sand dropseed shows good recovery to grazing in water stressed habitats [24,57]. Within arid shrublands, sand dropseed response to different grazing regimes is directly related to previous and current summer precipitation [97]. In the Nebraskan sandhills a direct positive correlation between fall moisture and regrowth was observed [47].
The New Mexico State University Extension recommends the following for seeding New Mexico rangelands with sand dropseed [4]:Seeds/ft2(@ 1 lb/acre) | Drilling 40'' rows | Broadcast or drilling (20'' or less) | Broadcast critical area | Soil adaptation |
123.0 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | sandy, loam |
Sand dropseed does not compete well within pinyon-juniper (Pinus-Juniperus spp.) woodlands. Three years after the removal of pinyon-juniper, the overall production of sand dropseed increased by 31 times the original amount [28].
Sand dropseed does not respond well to severe soil disturbance. Spring discking within a mesquite rangeland of northwest Texas had significant deleterious effects (p < 0.05) upon sand dropseed coverage and frequency [133].
Sand dropseed is a warm-season [15,123], shallow-rooted [65], drought resistant [18,26,32], perennial bunch grass [123]. The solid stemmed [26] small tufts [61] of sand dropseed reach 12 to 40 inches (30-100 cm) tall [6,15].
Sand dropseed is a polymorphic species [103,132]. Leaf blades range from 3 to 10 inches (8-25 cm) long and 8/100 to 2/10 of an inch (2-5 mm) wide [51]. The panicle is purplish to lead colored [91,98], with the inflorescence ranging 6 to 16 inches (15-40 cm) long [61,123] and 1 to 6 inches (2-15 cm) wide [123]. A sheath partially encloses the inflorescence [85]. The roots of sand dropseed are fine, 2/100 of an inch (0.5 mm) or less in diameter, stretching from a short stocky rhizome [35]. These fine roots may stretch laterally up to 10 inches (25 cm) and up to 31 inches (78 cm) down through the soil [35]. At 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm) below the soil surface, lateral roots branch and rebranch continuously forming a dense, soil binding mat [35].Hemicryptophyte
Regeneration is accomplished by seed which sets May to August [51] and by tillering from residual plant parts [123]. A prolific seed producer [31,34,50,60,91], one panicle of sand dropseed has yielded 10,000 seeds [22]. Sand dropseed produces small seed (5,298,000 seeds/lb) [4]. During seed maturation, the upper leaf sheath partially encloses the inflorescence. As the sheath weathers away, seed is disseminated [41]. Weathering of the previous growing season's leaf sheath and dispersal of seed may continue after new growth begins [31]. Rabbits may also be involved in dissemination of seed [21,108].
Contribution of seed to the seed bank is well documented, even within sites where sand dropseed is currently missing [50,110] or low in coverage [29,101]. This large contribution to the seed bank, both within and outside of sand dropseed communities, is consistent with the small seed size and wind dispersal [34]. An evaluation in western Iowa observed a large contribution of viable seed to the seed bank of a deciduous woodland (Cornus and Ulnus spp.) downhill from a ridge top grassland [110]. The number of viable seeds produced and relative seedling vigor are extremely variable for sand dropseed [1,32,39,76,110]. An evaluation in Colorado reported excellent germination and rapid growth [32]. Other studies have found sub-optimal germination and seedling response [39,76]. Compared to other species within the Kansas mixed-grass prairie, sand dropseed produces larger numbers of seed during periods of water stress [22]. In general, seedlings are usually slow to develop [6] but are persistent and drought resistant [6,60]. Studies evaluating germination cues recognize several methods to increase germination. Pricking seeds and scarifying with coarse sand helps germination [74]. Trampling by cattle provides another form of physical scarification. Good response was seen in burned blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima spp.) areas aerially seeded and then trampled by cattle [67]. A warm temperature germination requirement suggests seedling emergence and survival are related to late spring environmental conditions [68]. Alternating temperatures between cold and warm gives the best germination responses. The presence of light in conjunction with alternating temperatures also increases germination percentages. For specific temperatures and alternation times please see references [112,114].In the Nebraska sandhills, the highest germination percent came from seeds within the top 2 inches (5cm) of the soil [101].
Sand dropseed occurs in several soil types [103,123,132] and elevations [123] with site characteristics varying according to region. Within the Nebraska sandhills, preferred sites are sandier areas [136] of dry valley bottoms and dune base slopes [47]. Clay soils [36,103], silty clay loam [36], sandy loam [34], sandy alluvial soils [71], and gravelly soils [31,123,130] are also inhabited. In general, open [102] and disturbed areas with permeable, sandy soils [69,70,102] are preferred. Dry sandy ridges and plains are preferred in south-central New Mexico [26]. In southern Ontario, dry prairies with coarse sand and sandy loam are preferred [41].
Although sand dropseed prefers well-drained and permeable soils, populations are not restricted. Areas subjected to seasonal flooding are also inhabited by sand dropseed. Sand dropseed occurs under cottonwoods (Populus spp.) within intermittent streambeds [3] and upland areas of playa lakes [63]. Sand dropseed is also found within cottonwood communities of the South Platte and Arkansas river floodplains. [86]. Sand dropseed does not require high amounts of soil moisture. Populations are widespread in the Great Basin where summer rains are inconsistent from year to year and moderate in long-term averages [30]. Some states and relative elevational ranges where sand dropseed occurs:Sand dropseed is a colonizer of drought disturbed and previously cultivated lands. Invasion and establishment upon previously abandoned cultivated lands in the southern plains has been observed [132]. Within semi-arid mixed prairie landscapes, sand dropseed is one of the 1st to colonize denuded sandy to silty soil rangelands [60]. Sand dropseed was the principle grass within a field 14 years out of cultivation in Colorado [32]. Sand dropseed is also good at colonizing open spaces associated with heavy grazing [95].
In Texas, sand dropseed is a common invader of short-grass and mid-height grass mesquite/buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) communities [11].Phenology of sand dropseed corresponds to water availability. Sand dropseed has almost immediate response to available soil moisture [26]. In general, sand dropseed starts growth late spring [24,103,130] with seed maturing late summer to early fall [22,123]. This is slightly different in arid habitats. In the Chihuahuan desert of New Mexico, flowering was observed to begin in August with fruiting occurring in October [78]. Development occurs rapidly during periods of abundant moisture [26] with induced dormancy during periods of drought between rains [26]. Large amounts of late summer precipitation provide for the possibility of 2 or more reproductive phases [15].
Sand dropseed is usually killed or topkilled by fire [60,105,120]. Sand dropseed has the potential for postfire regeneration and seedling establishment as seeds within burned areas may remain viable [1]. However, the degree of postfire seedling establishment relative to unburned areas is under debate [1,87]. Postfire regeneration responses may differ according to relative abiotic and biotic site characteristics [1,87].
The following table describes historic fire regimes for many communities where sand dropseed occurs.Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range in Years |
California chaparral | Adenostoma and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | < 35 to < 100 |
bluestem prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium | < 10 [23,82] |
Nebraska sandhills prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium | < 10 |
sagebrush steppe | Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata | 20-70 [23] |
basin big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata | 12-43 [113] |
mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 5-15 [140] |
Wyoming big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (40)** [131,140] |
coastal sagebrush | Artemisia californica | < 35 to < 100 |
saltbush-greasewood | Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus | < 35 to < 100 |
desert grasslands | Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica | 5-100 |
plains grasslands | Bouteloua spp. | < 35 |
blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass | Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii | < 35 |
blue gramma-buffalo grass | Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides | < 35 |
grama-galleta steppe | Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii | < 35 to < 100 |
blue grama-tobosa prairie | Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica | < 35 to < 100 |
cheatgrass | Bromus tectorum | < 10 |
blackbrush | Coleogyne ramosissima | < 35 to < 100 |
Arizona cypress | Cupressus arizonica | < 35 to 200 |
California steppe | Festuca-Danthonia spp. | < 35 |
juniper-oak savanna | Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana | < 35 |
western juniper | Juniperus occidentalis | 20-70 |
Rocky Mountain juniper | Juniperus scopulorum | < 35 |
pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 |
Pacific ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa | 1-47 |
Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-10 |
mesquite | Prosopis glandulosa | < 35 to < 100 |
mesquite-buffalo grass | Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides | < 35 |
Texas savanna | Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa | < 10 |
California oakwoods | Quercus spp. | < 35 |
oak-hickory | Quercus-Carya spp. | < 35 |
oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) | Quercus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 to < 200 |
northeastern oak-pine | Quercus-Pinus spp. | 10 to < 35 |
oak savanna | Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium | 2-14 |
shinnery | Quercus mohriana | < 35 |
chestnut oak | Q. prinus | 3-8 |
northern red oak | Quercus rubra | 10 to < 35 |
post oak-blackjack oak | Quercus stellata-Q. marilandica | < 10 |
black oak | Quercus velutina | < 35 |
live oak | Quercus virginiana | 10 to< 100 [23] |
Tussock graminoid
Initial colonizer - on-site seed
Secondary colonizer - on-site seed
Sand dropseed is consumed rapidly by fire [120]. Individual plants are badly damaged [60,105] to completely killed by fire, with younger plants suffering less than older plants [64].
The extent of damage imposed by fire upon sand dropseed is related to season of burn. Early spring burns show positive responses in sand dropseed. Within a western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) community in South Dakota, a spring burn saw increased sand dropseed standing crop for 3 and 4 postburn years [134]. Results for two year successional spring burns in South Dakota also showed increased sand dropseed standing crop [134]. Spring burning in southern Nebraska was associated with positive sand dropseed response [115].
Under periods of water stress sand dropseed's ability to withstand fire is inhibited [60,139]. Drought and fire together cause greater deleterious effects than fire in wet periods [138]. In the northern Great Plains, sand dropseed is usually harmed by fire; however, tolerance to fire was observed when winter and spring precipitation reached levels 40% greater than normal [60]. During wet years (0-40% above normal precipitation) small and medium sized sand dropseed showed no negative responses to fire [137]. Effects are generally negatively associated when sand dropseed is actively growing compared to dormant phases [7,128].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
A cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)-sand dropseed-red threeawn grassland community in Utah was evaluated for 5 years to determine response to fire. The foliage cover (% of surface covered) before and after the fire (1956) was as follows [27]:
1955 | 1957 | 1958 | 1960 | 1961 | |
cheatgrass | 37.9 | 64.2 | 55.5 | 59.2 | 63.3 |
sand dropseed | 14.2 | 10.9 | 7.6 | 9.6 | 7.3 |
red threeawn | 11.5 | 3.4 | 6.2 | 9.9 | 5.0 |
June | July | August | October |
3.0 | 4.7 | 7.6 | 11.7 |
June | July | August | October |
4.6 | 2.7 | 4.7 | 8.7 |
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
In general sand dropseed has the ability to show positive responses to fire in conjunction with reduced competition from neighboring species [134].
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