Note: Some citations in the text of this section are followed by a level of evidence. The PDQ editorial boards use a formal ranking system to help the reader judge the strength of evidence linked to the reported results of a therapeutic strategy. (Refer to the PDQ summary Levels of Evidence for more information.)

Although there is no formal staging system, ependymomas can be divided into supratentorial and infratentorial tumors. They usually originate in the ependymal linings of ventricles in the posterior fossa or supratentorial region, and have access to the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and therefore may spread throughout the entire neuraxis. Thirty percent of childhood ependymomas arise outside of the posterior fossa.[1-3] Every patient with ependymoma should be evaluated with diagnostic imaging of the spinal cord and whole brain. The most sensitive method available for evaluating spinal cord subarachnoid metastasis is spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) performed with gadolinium. If MRI is used, the entire spine is generally imaged in at least two planes with contiguous MRI slices performed after gadolinium enhancement. In addition, CSF cytological evaluation should be conducted. While a number of factors have sometimes been associated with an unfavorable outcome (younger age at diagnosis, lower doses of radiation, anaplastic histology, subtotal resection, higher proliferation marker, MIB-1 labeling index),[1,4-10][Level of evidence: 3iiiDi] age, histology, and extent of resection have consistently been the most important factors.[5,6,11,12] Molecular diagnostics are evolving, but have yet to be validated in a prospective manner.[13,14] These prognostic variables must be evaluated in the context of the treatment received.

References

1. Goldwein JW, Leahy JM, Packer RJ, et al.: Intracranial ependymomas in children. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19 (6): 1497-502, 1990.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
2. Kovnar E, Kun L, Burger J, et al.: Patterns of dissemination and recurrence in childhood ependymoma: preliminary results of Pediatric Oncology Group protocol #8532. Ann Neurol 30(3): 457, 1991. 
   
   
3. Vanuytsel LJ, Bessell EM, Ashley SE, et al.: Intracranial ependymoma: long-term results of a policy of surgery and radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 23 (2): 313-9, 1992.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
4. Shaw EG, Evans RG, Scheithauer BW, et al.: Postoperative radiotherapy of intracranial ependymoma in pediatric and adult patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 13 (10): 1457-62, 1987.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
5. Horn B, Heideman R, Geyer R, et al.: A multi-institutional retrospective study of intracranial ependymoma in children: identification of risk factors. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 21 (3): 203-11, 1999 May-Jun.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
6. Pollack IF, Gerszten PC, Martinez AJ, et al.: Intracranial ependymomas of childhood: long-term outcome and prognostic factors. Neurosurgery 37 (4): 655-66; discussion 666-7, 1995.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
7. Merchant TE, Jenkins JJ, Burger PC, et al.: Influence of tumor grade on time to progression after irradiation for localized ependymoma in children. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 53 (1): 52-7, 2002.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
8. Wolfsberger S, Fischer I, Höftberger R, et al.: Ki-67 immunolabeling index is an accurate predictor of outcome in patients with intracranial ependymoma. Am J Surg Pathol 28 (7): 914-20, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
9. Kurt E, Zheng PP, Hop WC, et al.: Identification of relevant prognostic histopathologic features in 69 intracranial ependymomas, excluding myxopapillary ependymomas and subependymomas. Cancer 106 (2): 388-95, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
   
   
10. Tihan T, Zhou T, Holmes E, et al.: The prognostic value of histological grading of posterior fossa ependymomas in children: a Children's Oncology Group study and a review of prognostic factors. Mod Pathol 21 (2): 165-77, 2008.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
11. Bouffet E, Perilongo G, Canete A, et al.: Intracranial ependymomas in children: a critical review of prognostic factors and a plea for cooperation. Med Pediatr Oncol 30 (6): 319-29; discussion 329-31, 1998.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
12. Korshunov A, Golanov A, Sycheva R, et al.: The histologic grade is a main prognostic factor for patients with intracranial ependymomas treated in the microneurosurgical era: an analysis of 258 patients. Cancer 100 (6): 1230-7, 2004.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
13. Mendrzyk F, Korshunov A, Benner A, et al.: Identification of gains on 1q and epidermal growth factor receptor overexpression as independent prognostic markers in intracranial ependymoma. Clin Cancer Res 12 (7 Pt 1): 2070-9, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    
14. Tabori U, Ma J, Carter M, et al.: Human telomere reverse transcriptase expression predicts progression and survival in pediatric intracranial ependymoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (10): 1522-8, 2006.  [PUBMED Abstract]
    
    

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