(NOTE: The following represents the views of the author and not necessarily the views of the Naval Historical Center.)
by Ellen C. Collier, Specialist in U.S.
Foreign Policy,
Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division
Washington DC: Congressional Research Service -- Library of Congress
-- October 7, 1993
Summary
1798-1800 -- Undeclared Naval War
with France. This contest included land actions, such as that
in the Dominican Republic, city of Puerto Plata, where marines
captured a French privateer under the guns of the forts.
1801-05 -- Tripoli. The First Barbary War included the
USS George Washington and USS Philadelphia affairs
and the Eaton expedition, during which a few marines landed with
United States Agent William Eaton to raise a force against Tripoli
in an effort to free the crew of the Philadelphia. Tripoli
declared war but not the United States.
1806 -- Mexico (Spanish territory). Capt. Z. M. Pike, with
a platoon of troops, invaded Spanish territory at the headwaters
of the Rio Grande on orders from Gen. James Wilkinson. He was
made prisoner without resistance at a fort he constructed in present
day Colorado, taken to Mexico, and later released after seizure
of his papers.
1806-10 -- Gulf of Mexico. American gunboats operated from
New Orleans against Spanish and French privateers off the Mississippi
Delta, chiefly under Capt. John Shaw and Master Commandant David
Porter.
1810 -- West Florida (Spanish territory). Gov. Claiborne
of Louisiana, on orders of the President, occupied with troops
territory in dispute east of Mississippi as far as the Pearl River,
later the eastern boundary of Louisiana. He was authorized to
seize as far east as the Perdido River.
1812 -- Amelia Island and other - parts of east Florida, then
under Spain. Temporary possession was authorized by President
Madison and by Congress, to prevent occupation by any other power;
but possession was obtained by Gen. George Matthews in so irregular
a manner that his measures were disavowed by the President.
1812-15 -- War of 1812. On June 18, 1812, the United States
declared war between the United States and the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland. Among the issues leading
to the war were British interception of neutral ships and blockades
of the United States during British hostilities with France.
1813 -- West Florida (Spanish territory). On authority
given by Congress, General Wilkinson seized Mobile Bay in April
with 600 soldiers. A small Spanish garrison gave way. Thus U.S.
advanced into disputed territory to the Perdido River, as projected
in 1810. No fighting.
1813-14 -- Marguesas Islands. U.S. forces built a fort
on the island of Nukahiva to protect three prize ships which had
been captured from the British.
1814 -- Spanish Florida. Gen. Andrew Jackson took Pensacola
and drove out the British with whom the United States was at war.
1814-25 -- Caribbean. Engagements between pirates and American
ships or squadrons took place repeatedly especially ashore and
offshore about Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Yucatan.
Three thousand pirate attacks on merchantmen were reported between
1815 and 1823. In 1822 Commodore James Biddle employed a squadron
of two frigates, four sloops of war, two brigs, four schooners,
and two gunboats in the West Indies.
1815 -- Algiers. The second Barbary
War was declared by the opponents but not by the United States.
Congress authorized an expedition. A large fleet under Decatur
attacked Algiers and obtained indemnities.
1815 -- Tripoli. After securing an agreement from Algiers,
Decatur demonstrated with his squadron at Tunis and Tripoli, where
he secured indemnities for offenses during the War of 1812.
1816 -- Spanish Florida. United States forces destroyed
Nicholls Fort, called also Negro Fort, which harbored raiders
making forays into United States territory.
1816-18 -- Spanish Florida - First Seminole War. The Seminole
Indians, whose area was a resort for escaped slaves and border
ruffians, were attacked by troops under Generals Jackson and Gaines
and pursued into northern Florida. Spanish posts were attacked
and occupied, British citizens executed. In 1819 the Floridas
were ceded to the United States.
1817 -- Amelia Island (Spanish territory off Florida).
Under orders of President Monroe, United States forces landed
and expelled a group of smugglers, adventurers, and freebooters.
1818 -- Oregon. The USS. Ontario dispatched from
Washington, landed at the Columbia River and in August took possession
of Oregon territory. Britain had conceded sovereignty but Russia
and Spain asserted claims to the area.
1820-23 -- Africa. Naval units raided the slave traffic
pursuant to the 1819 act of Congress.
1822 -- Cuba. United States naval forces suppressing piracy
landed on the northwest coast of Cuba and burned a pirate station.
1823 -- Cuba. Brief landings in pursuit of pirates occurred
April 8 near Escondido; April 16 near Cayo Blanco; July 11 at
Siquapa Bay; July 21 at Cape Cruz; and October 23 at Camrioca.
1824 -- Cuba. In October the USS Porpoise landed
bluejackets near Matanzas in pursuit of pirates. This was during
the cruise authorized in 1822.
1824 -- Puerto Rico (Spanish territory). Commodore David
Porter with a landing party attacked the town of Fajardo which
had sheltered pirates and insulted American naval officers. He
landed with 200 men in November and forced an apology. Commodore
Porter was later court-martialed for overstepping his powers.
1825 -- Cuba. In March cooperating American and British
forces landed at Sagua La Grande to capture pirates.
1827 -- Greece. In October and November landing parties
hunted pirates on the islands of Argenteire, Miconi, and Androse.
1831-32 -- Falkland Islands. Captain Duncan of the USS
Lexington investigated the capture of three American sealing
vessels and sought to protect American interests.
1832 -- Sumatra - February 6 to 9. A naval force landed
and stormed a fort to punish natives of the town of Quallah Battoo
for plundering the American ship Friendship.
1833 -- Argentina - October 31 to November 15. A force
was sent ashore at Buenos Aires to protect the interests of the
United States and other countries during an insurrection.
1835-36 -- Peru - December 10, 1835, to January 24, 1836,
and August 31 to December 7, 1836. Marines protected American
interests in Callao and Lima during an attempted revolution.
1836 -- Mexico. General Gaines occupied Nacogdoches (Tex.),
disputed territory, from July to December during the Texan war
for independence, under orders to cross the "imaginary boundary
line" if an Indian outbreak threatened.
1838-39 -- Sumatra - December 24, 1838, to January 4, 1839.
A naval force landed to punish natives of the towns of Quallah
Battoo and Muckie (Mukki) for depredations on American shipping.
1840 -- Fiji Islands - July. Naval forces landed to punish
natives for attacking American exploring and surveying parties.
1841 -- Drummond Island, Kingsmill Group. A naval party
landed to avenge the murder of a seaman by the natives.
1841 -- Samoa - February 24. A naval party landed and burned
towns after the murder of an American seaman on Upolu Island.
1842 -- Mexico. Commodore TA.C. Jones, in command of a
squadron long cruising off California, occupied Monterey, Calif.,
on October 19, believing war had come. He discovered peace, withdrew,
and saluted. A similar incident occurred a week later at San Diego.
1843 -- China. Sailors and marines from the St. Louis
were landed after a clash between Americans and Chinese at the
trading post in Canton.
1843 -- Africa -- November 29 to December 16. Four United
States vessels demonstrated and landed various parties (one of
200 marines and sailors) to discourage piracy and the slave trade
along the Ivory coast, and to punish attacks by the natives on
American seamen and shipping.
1844 -- Mexico. President Tyler deployed U.S. forces to
protect Texas against Mexico, pending Senate approval of a treaty
of annexation. (Later rejected.) He defended his action against
a Senate resolution of inquiry.
1846-48 -- Mexican War. On May 13,1846, the United States
recognized the existence of a state of war with Mexico. After
the annexation of Texas in 1845, the United States and Mexico
failed to resolve a boundary dispute and President Polk said that
it was necessary to deploy forces in Mexico to meet a threatened
invasion.
1849 -- Smyrna. In July a naval force gained release of
an American seized by Austrian officials.
1851 -- Turkey. After a massacre of foreigners (including
Americans) at Jaffa in January, a demonstration by the Mediterranean
Squadron was ordered along the Turkish (Levant) coast.
1851 -- Johanns Island (east of Africa) -- August. Forces
from the U.S. sloop of war Dale exacted redress for the
unlawful imprisonment of the captain of an American whaling brig.
1852-53 -- Argentina -- February 3 to 12, 1852; September
17, 1852 to April 1853. Marines were landed and maintained in
Buenos Aires to protect American interests during a revolution.
1853 -- Nicaragua -- March 11 to 13. U.S. forces landed
to protect American lives and interests during political disturbances.
1853-54 -- Japan. Commodore Perry and his expedition made
a display of force leading to the "opening of Japan"
and the Perry Expedition.
1853-54 -- Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. Commodore Perry on
three visits before going to Japan and while waiting for a reply
from Japan made a naval demonstration, landing marines twice,
and secured a coaling concession from the ruler of Naha on Okinawa;
he also demonstrated in the Bonin Islands with the purpose of
securing facilities for commerce.
1854 -- China -- April 4 to June 15 to 17. American and
English ships landed forces to protect American interests in and
near Shanghai during Chinese civil strife.
1854 -- Nicaragua -- July 9 to 15. Naval forces bombarded
and burned San Juan del Norte (Greytown) to avenge an insult to
the American Minister to Nicaragua.
1855 -- China -- May 19 to 21. U.S. forces protected American
interests in Shanghai and, from August 3 to 5 fought pirates near
Hong Kong.
1855 -- Fiji Islands -- September 12 to November 4. An
American naval force landed to seek reparations for depredations
on American residents and seamen.
1855 -- Uruguay -- November 25 to 29. United States and
European naval forces landed to protect American interests during
an attempted revolution in Montevideo.
1856 -- Panama, Republic of New Grenada -- September 19
to 22. U.S. forces landed to protect American interests during
an insurrection.
1856 -- China -- October 22 to December 6. U.S. forces
landed to protect American interests at Canton during hostilities
between the British and the Chinese, and to avenge an assault
upon an unarmed boat displaying the United States flag.
1857 -- Nicaragua -- April to May, November to December.
In May Commander C.H. Davis of the United States Navy, with some
marines, received the surrender of William Walker, who had been
attempting to get control of the country, and protected his men
from the retaliation of native allies who had been fighting Walker.
In November and December of the same year United States vessels
Saratoga, Wabash, and Fulton opposed another
attempt of William Walker on Nicaragua. Commodore Hiram Paulding's
act of landing marines and compelling the removal of Walker to
the United States, was tacitly disavowed by Secretary of State
Lewis Cass, and Paulding was forced into retirement.
1858 -- Uruguay -- January 2 to 27. Forces from two United
States warships landed to protect American property during a revolution
in Montevideo.
1858 -- Fiji Islands -- October 6 to 16. A marine expedition
chastised natives for the murder of two American citizens at Waya.
1858-59 -- Turkey. The Secretary of State requested a display
of naval force along the Levant after a massacre of Americans
at Jaffa and mistreatment elsewhere "to remind the authorities
(of Turkey) of the power of the United States."
1859 -- Paraguay. Congress authorized a naval squadron
to seek redress for an attack on a naval vessel in the Parana
River during 1855. Apologies were made after a large display of
force.
1859 -- Mexico. Two hundred United States soldiers crossed
the Rio Grande in pursuit of the Mexican bandit Cortina.
1859 -- China -- July 31 to August 2. A naval force landed
to protect American interests in Shanghai.
1860 -- Angola, Portuguese West Africa -- March 1. American
residents at Kissembo called upon American and British ships to
protect lives and property during problems with natives.
1860 -- Colombia, Bay of Panama -- September 27 to October
8. Naval forces landed to protect American interests during a
revolution.
1863 -- Japan -- July 16. The USS Wyoming retaliated
against a firing on the American vessel Pembroke at Shimonoseki.
1864 -- Japan -- July 14 to August 3. Naval forces protected
the United States Minister to Japan when he visited Yedo to negotiate
concerning some American claims against Japan, and to make his
negotiations easier by impressing the Japanese with American power.
1864 -- Japan -- September 4 to 14. Naval forces of the
United States, Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands compelled
Japan and the Prince of Nagato in particular to permit the Straits
of Shimonoseki to be used by foreign shipping in accordance with
treaties already signed.
1865 -- Panama -- March 9 and 10. U.S. forces protected
the lives and property of American residents during a revolution.
1866 -- Mexico. To protect American residents, General
Sedgwick and 100 men in November obtained surrender of Matamoras.
After 3 days he was ordered by U.S. Government to withdraw. His
act was repudiated by the President.
1866 -- China. From June 20 to July 7, U.S. forces punished
an assault on the American consul at Newchwang.
1867 -- Nicaragua. Marines occupied Managua and Leon.
1867 -- Formosa -- June 13. A naval force landed and burned
a number of huts to punish the murder of the crew of a wrecked
American vessel.
1868 -- Japan (Osaka, Hiolo, Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Negata)
-- February 4 to 8, April 4 to May 12, June 12 and 13. U.S. forces
were landed to protect American interests during the civil war
in Japan over the abolition of the Shogunate and the restoration
of the Mikado.
1868 -- Uruguay -- February 7 and 8, 19 to 26. U.S. forces
protected foreign residents and the customhouse during an insurrection
at Montevideo.
1868 -- Colombia -- April. U.S. forces protected passengers
and treasure in transit at Aspinwall during the absence of local
police or troops on the occasion of the death of the President
of Colombia.
1870 -- Mexico -- June 17 and 18. U.S. forces destroyed
the pirate ship Forward, which had been run aground about
40 miles up the Rio Tecapan.
1870 -- Hawaiian Islands -- September 21. U.S. forces placed
the American flag at half mast upon the death of Queen Kalama,
when the American consul at Honolulu would not assume responsibility
for so doing.
1871 -- Korea -- June 10 to 12. A U.S. naval force attacked
and captured five forts to punish natives for depredations on
Americans, particularly for murdering the crew of the General
Sherman and burning the schooner, and for later firing on
other American small boats taking soundings up the Salee River.
1873 -- Colombia (Bay of Panama) -- May 7 to 22, September
23 to October 9. U.S. forces protected American interests during
hostilities over possession of the government of the State of
Panama.
1873 -- Mexico. United States troops crossed the Mexican
border repeatedly in pursuit of cattle and other thieves. There
were some reciprocal pursuits by Mexican troops into border territory.
Mexico protested frequently. Notable cases were at Remolina in
May 1873 and at Las Cuevas in 1875. Washington orders often supported
these excursions. Agreements between Mexico and the United States,
the first in 1882, finally legitimized such raids. They continued
intermittently, with minor disputes, until 1896.
1874 -- Hawaiian Islands -- February 12 to 20. Detachments
from American vessels were landed to preserve order and protect
American lives and interests during the coronation of a new king.
1876 -- Mexico -- May 18. An American force was landed
to police the town of Matamoras temporarily while it was without
other government.
1882 -- Egypt -- July 14 to 18. American forces landed
to protect American interests during warfare between British and
Egyptians and looting of the city of Alexandria by Arabs.
1885 -- Panama (Colon) -- January 18 and 19. U.S. forces
were used to guard the valuables in transit over the Panama Railroad,
and the safes and vaults of the company during revolutionary activity.
In March, April, and May in the cities of Colon and Panama, the
forces helped reestablish freedom of transit during revolutionary
activity.
1888 -- Korea -- June. A naval force was sent ashore to
protect American residents in Seoul during unsettled political
conditions, when an outbreak of the populace was expected.
1888 -- Haiti -- December 20. A display of force persuaded
the Haitian Government to give up an American steamer which had
been seized on the charge of breach of blockade.
1888--89 -- Samoa -- November 14, 1888, to March 20, 1889.
U.S. forces were landed to protect American citizens and the consulate
during a native civil war.
1889 -- Hawaiian Islands -- July 30 and 31. U.S. forces
protected American interests at Honolulu during a revolution.
1890 -- Argentina. A naval party landed to protect U.S.
consulate and legation in Buenos Aires.
1891 -- Haiti. U.S. forces sought to protect American lives
and property on Navassa Island.
1891 -- Bering Strait -- July 2 to October 5. Naval forces
sought to stop seal poaching.
1891 -- Chile -- August 28 to 30. U.S. forces protected
the American consulate and the women and children who had taken
refuge in it during a revolution in Valparaiso.
1893 -- Hawaii -- January 16 to April 1. Marines were landed
ostensibly to protect American lives and property, but many believed
actually to promote a provisional government under Sanford B.
Dole. This action was disavowed by the United States.
1894 -- Brazil -- January. A display of naval force sought
to protect American commerce and shipping at Rio de Janeiro during
a Brazilian civil war.
1894 -- Nicaragua -- July 6 to August 7. U.S. forces sought
to protect American interests at Bluefields following a revolution.
1894-95 -- China. Marines were stationed at Tientsin and
penetrated to Peking for protection purposes during the Sino--Japanese
War.
1894-95 -- China. A naval vessel was beached and used as
a fort at Newchwang for protection of American nationals.
1894-96 -- Korea -- July 24, 1894 to April 3, 1896. A guard
of marines was sent to protect the American legation and American
lives and interests at Seoul during and following the Sino-- Japanese
War.
1895 -- Colombia -- March 8 to 9. U.S. forces protected
American interests during an attack on the town of Bocas del Toro
by a bandit chieftain.
1896 -- Nicaragua -- May 2 to 4. U.S. forces protected
American interests in Corinto during political unrest.
1898 -- Nicaragua -- February 7 and 8. U.S. forces protected
American lives and property at San Juan del Sur.
1898 -- The Spanish--American War. On April 25, 1898, the
United States declared war with Spain. The war followed
a Cuban insurrection against Spanish rule and the sinking of the
U.S.S. Maine in the harbor at Havana.
1898--99 -- China -- November 5, 1898 to March 15, 1899.
U.S. forces provided a guard for the legation at Peking and the
consulate at Tientsin during contest between the Dowager Empress
and her son.
1899 -- Nicaragua. American and British naval forces were
landed to protect national interests at San Juan del Norte, February
22 to March 5, and at Bluefields a few weeks later in connection
with the insurrection of Gen. Juan P. Reyes.
1899 -- Samoa -- February-May 15. American and British
naval forces were landed to protect national interests and to
take part in a bloody contention over the succession to the throne.
1899--1901 -- Philippine Islands. U.S. forces protected
American interests following the war with Spain and conquered
the islands by defeating the Filipinos in their war for independence.
1900 -- China -- May 24 to September 28. American troops
participated in operations to protect foreign lives during the
Boxer rising, particularly at Peking. For many years after this
experience a permanent legation guard was maintained in Peking,
and was strengthened at times as trouble threatened.
1901 -- Colombia (State of Panama) -- November 20 to December
4. U.S. forces protected American property on the Isthmus and
kept transit lines open during serious revolutionary disturbances.
1902 -- Colombia -- April 16 to 23. U.S. forces protected
American lives and property at Bocas del Toro during a civil war.
1902 -- Colombia (State of Panama) -- September 17 to November
18. The United States placed armed guards on all trains crossing
the Isthmus to keep the railroad line open, and stationed ships
on both sides of Panama to prevent the landing of Colombian troops.
1903 -- Honduras -- March 23 to 30 or 31. U.S. forces protected
the American consulate and the steamship wharf at Puerto Cortez
during a period of revolutionary activity.
1903 -- Dominican Republic -- March 30 to April 21. A detachment
of marines was landed to protect American interests in the city
of Santo Domingo during a revolutionary outbreak.
1903 -- Syria -- September 7 to 12. U.S. forces protected
the American consulate in Beirut when a local Moslem uprising
was feared.
1903-04 -- Abyssinia. Twenty-five marines were sent to
Abyssinia to protect the U.S. Consul General while he negotiated
a treaty.
1903-14 -- Panama. U.S. forces sought to protect American interests and lives during and following the revolution for independence from Colombia over construction of the Isthmian Canal. With brief intermissions, United States Marines were stationed on the Isthmus from November 4, 1903, to January 21 1914 to guard American interests.
1904 -- Dominican Republic -- January 2 to February 11. American and British naval forces established an area in which no fighting would be allowed and protected American interests in Puerto Plata and Sosua and Santo Domingo City during revolutionary fighting.
1904 -- Tangier, Morocco. "We want either Perdicaris alive or Raisula dead." A squadron demonstrated to force release of a kidnapped American. Marine guard was landed to protect the consul general.
1904 -- Panama -- November 17 to 24. U.S. forces protected American lives and property at Ancon at the time of a threatened insurrection.
1904-05 -- Korea -- January 5, 1904, to November 11, 1905. A Marine guard was sent to protect the American legation in Seoul during the Russo-Japanese War.
1906-09 -- Cuba -- September 1906 to January 23, 1909. U.S. forces sought to restore order, protect foreigners, and establish a stable government after serious revolutionary activity.
1907 -- Honduras -- March 18 to
June 8. To protect American interests during a war between Honduras
and Nicaragua, troops were stationed in Trujillo, Ceiba, Puerto
Cortez, San Pedro Laguna and Choloma.
1910 -- Nicaragua -- May 19 to September 4. U.S. forces
protected American interests at Bluefields.
1911 -- Honduras -- January 26. American naval detachments
were landed to protect American lives and interests during a civil
war in Honduras.
1911 -- China. As the nationalist revolution approached,
in October an ensign and 10 men tried to enter Wuchang to rescue
missionaries but retired on being warned away and a small landing
force guarded American private property and consulate at Hankow.
A marine guard was established in November over the cable stations
at Shanghai; landing forces were sent for protection in Nanking,
Chinkiang, Taku and elsewhere.
1912 -- Honduras. A small force landed to prevent seizure
by the government of an American-owned railroad at Puerto Cortez.
The forces were withdrawn after the United States disapproved
the action.
1912 -- Panama. Troops, on request of both political parties,
supervised elections outside the Canal Zone.
1912 -- Cuba -- June 5 to August 5. U.S. forces protected
American interests on the Province of Oriente, and in Havana.
1912 -- China -- August 24 to 26, on Kentucky Island, and
August 26 to 30 at Camp Nicholson. U.S. forces protect Americans
and American interests during revolutionary activity.
1912 -- Turkey -- November 18 to December 3. U.S. forces
guarded the American legation at Constantinople during a Balkan
War.
1912-25 -- Nicaragua -- August to November 1912. U.S. forces
protected American interests during an attempted revolution. A
small force, serving as a legation guard and seeking to promote
peace and stability, remained until August 5, 1925.
1912-41 -- China. The disorders which began with the Kuomintang
rebellion in 1912, which were redirected by the invasion of China
by Japan and finally ended by war between Japan and the United
States in 1941, led to demonstrations and landing parties for
the protection of U.S. interests in China continuously and at
many points from 1912 on to 1941. The guard at Peking and along
the route to the sea was maintained until 1941. In 1927, the United
States had 5,670 troops ashore in China and 44 naval vessels in
its waters. In 1933 the United States had 3,027 armed men ashore.
The protective action was generally based on treaties with China
concluded from 1858 to 1901.
1913 -- Mexico -- September 5 to 7. A few marines landed
at Ciaris Estero to aid in evacuating American citizens and others
from the Yaqui Valley, made dangerous for foreigners by civil
strife.
1914 -- Haiti -- January 29 to February 9, February 20
to 21, October 19. Intermittently U.S. naval forces protected
American nationals in a time of rioting and revolution.
1914 -- Dominican Republic -- June and July. During a revolutionary
movement, United States naval forces by gunfire stopped the bombardment
of Puerto Plata, and by threat of force maintained Santo Domingo
City as a neutral zone.
1914-17 -- Mexico. Undeclared Mexican--American hostilities
followed the Dolphin affair and Villa's raids and included
capture of Vera Cruz and later Pershing's expedition into northern
Mexico.
1915-34 -- Haiti -- July 28, 1915, to August 15, 1934.
U.S. forces maintained order during a period of chronic and threatened
insurrection.
1916 -- China. American forces landed to quell a riot taking
place on American property in Nanking.
1916-24 -- Dominican Republic -- May 1916 to September 1924. American naval forces maintained order during a period of chronic and threatened insurrection.
1917 -- China. American troops
were landed at Chungking to protect American lives during a political
crisis.
1917-18 -- World War I. On April 6, 1917, the United States
declared war with Germany and on December 7,1917, with Austria-Hungary.
Entrance of the United States into the war was precipitated
by Germany's submarine warfare against neutral shipping.
1917-22 -- Cuba. U.S. forces protected American interests
during insurrection and subsequent unsettled conditions. Most
of the Uni States armed forces left Cuba by August 1919, but two
companies remained at Camaguey until February 1922.
1918-19 -- Mexico. After withdrawal of the Pershing expedition,
U.S. troops entered Mexico in pursuit of bandits at least three
times in 1918 and s times in 1919. In August 1918 American and
Mexican troops fought at Nogales.
1918-20 -- Panama. U.S. forces were used for police duty
according to treaty stipulations, at Chiriqui, during election
disturbances and subsequent unrest.
1918-20 Soviet Russia. Marines were landed at and near
Vladivostok in June and July to protect the American consulate
and other points in the fighting between the Bolshevik troops
and the Czech Army which had traversed Siberia from the western
front. A joint proclamation of emergency government and neutrality
was issued by the American, Japanese, British, French, and Czech
commanders in July. In August 7,000 men were landed in Vladivostok
and remained until January 1920, as part of an allied occupation
force. In September 1918, 5,000 American troops joined the allied
intervention force at Archangel and remained until June 1919.
These operations were in response to the Bolshevik revolution
in Russia and were partly supported by Czarist or Kerensky elements.
1919 -- Dalmatia. U.S. forces were landed at Trau at the
request of Italian authorities to police order between the Italians
and Serbs.
1919 -- Turkey. Marines from the USS Arizona were
landed to guard the U.S. Consulate during the Greek occupation
of Constantinople.
1919 -- Honduras -- September 8 to 12. A landing force
was sent ashore to maintain order in a neutral zone during an
attempted revolution.
1920 -- China -- March 14. A landing force was sent ashore
for a few hours to protect lives during a disturbance at Kiukiang.
1920 -- Guatemala -- April 9 to 27. U.S. forces protected
the American Legation and other American interests, such as the
cable station, during a period of fighting between Unionists and
the Government of Guatemala.
1920-22 -- Russia (Siberia) -- February 16, 1920, to November
19, 1922. A Marine guard was sent to protect the United States
radio station and property on Russian Island, Bay of Vladivostok.
1921 -- Panama -- Costa Rica. American naval squadrons
demonstrated in April on both sides of the Isthmus to prevent
war between the two countries over a boundary dispute.
1922 -- Turkey -- September and October. A landing force
was sent ashore with consent of both Greek and Turkish authorities,
to protect American lives and property when the Turkish Nationalists
entered Smyrna.
1922-23 -- China. Between April 1922 and November 1923
marines were landed five times to protect Americans during periods
of unrest.
1924 -- Honduras -- February 28 to March 31, September
10 to 15. U.S. forces protected American lives and interests during
election hostilities.
1924 -- China -- September. Marines were landed to protect
Americans and other foreigners in Shanghai during Chinese factional
hostilities.
1925 -- China -- January 15 to August 29. Fighting of Chinese
factions accompanied by riots and demonstrations in Shanghai brought
the landing of American forces to protect lives and property in
the International Settlement.
1925 -- Honduras -- April 19 to 21. U.S. forces protected
foreigners at La Ceiba during a political upheaval.
1925 -- Panama -- October 12 to 23. Strikes and rent riots
led to the landing of about 600 American troops to keep order
and protect American interests.
1926 -- China -- August and September. The Nationalist
attack on Han brought the landing of American naval forces to
protect American citizens. A small guard was maintained at the
consulate general even after September 16, when the rest of the
forces were withdrawn. Likewise, when Nation forces captured Kiukiang,
naval forces were landed for the protection of foreigners November
4 to 6.
1926-33 -- Nicaragua -- May 7 to June 5, 1926; August 27,
1926, to January 1933. The coup d'etat of General Chamorro aroused
revolutionary activities leading to the landing of American marines
to protect the interests of United States. United States forces
came and went intermittently until January 3, 1933. Their work
included activity against the outlaw leader
Sandino in 1928.
1927 -- China -- February. Fighting at Shanghai caused
American naval forces and marines to be increased. In March a
naval guard was stationed at American consulate at Nanking after
Nationalist forces captured the city. American and British destroyers
later used shell fire to protect Americans and other foreigners.
Subsequently additional forces of marines and naval
forces were stationed in the vicinity of Shanghai and Tientsin.
1932 -- China. American forces were landed to protect American
interests during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai.
1933 -- Cuba. During a revolution against President Gerardo
Machada naval forces demonstrated but no landing was made.
1934 -- China. Marines landed at Foochow to protect the
American Consulate.
1940 -- Newfoundland, Bermuda, St. Lucia, - Bahamas, Jamaica,
Antigua, Trinidad, and British Guiana. Troops were sent to
guard air and naval bases obtained by negotiation with Great Britain.
These were sometimes called lend-lease bases.
1941 -- Greenland. Greenland was taken under protection
of the United States in April.
1941 -- Netherlands (Dutch Guiana). In November the President
ordered American troops to occupy Dutch Guiana, but by agreement
with the Netherlands government in exile, Brazil cooperated to
protect aluminum ore supply from the bauxite mines in Surinam.
1941 -- Iceland. Iceland was taken under the protection
of the United States
1941 -- Germany. Sometime in the spring the President ordered
the Navy to patrol ship lanes to Europe. By July U.S. warships
were conveying and September were attacking German submarines.
In November, the Neutrality Act was partially repealed to protect
U.S. military aid to Britain.1941-45 -- World War II. On
December 8, 1941, the United States declared war with Japan, on
December 11 with Germany and Italy, and on June 5, 1942, with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. The United States declared
war against Japan after the surprise bombing of Pearl Harbor,
and against Germany and Italy after those nations, under the dictators
Hitler and Mussolini, declared war against the United States.
1945 -- China. In October 50,000 U.S. Marines were sent
to North China to assist Chinese Nationalist authorities in disarming
and repatriating the Japanese in China and in controlling ports,
railroads, and airfields. This was in addition to approximately
60,000 U.S. forces remaining in China at the end of World War
II.
1946 -- Trieste. President Truman ordered the augmentation
of U.S. troops along the zonal occupation line and the reinforcement
of air forces in northern Italy after Yugoslav forces shot down
an unarmed U.S. Army transport plane flying over Venezia Giulia.
Earlier U.S. naval units had been dispatched to the scene.
1948 -- Palestine. A marine consular guard was sent to
Jerusalem to protect the U.S. Consul General.
1948 -- Berlin. After the Soviet Union established a land
blockade of the U.S., British, and French sectors of Berlin on
June 24, 1948, the United States and its allies airlifted supplies
to Berlin until after the blockade was lifted in May 1949.
1948-49 -- China. Marines were dispatched to Nanking to
protect the American Embassy when the city fell to Communist troops,
and to Shanghai to aid in the protection and evacuation of Americans.
1950-53 -- Korean War. The United States responded to North
Korean invasion of South Korea by going to its assistance, pursuant
to United Nations Security Council resolutions.
1950-55 -- Formosa (Taiwan). In June 1950 at the beginning
of the Korean War, President Truman ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet
to prevent Chinese Communist attacks upon Formosa and Chinese
Nationalist operations against mainland China.
1954-55 -- China. Naval units evacuated U.S. civilians
and military personnel from the Tachen Islands.
1956 -- Egypt. A Marine battalion evacuated U.S. nationals
and other persons from Alexandria during the Suez crisis.
1958 -- Lebanon. Marines were landed in Lebanon at the
invitation of its government to help protect against threatened
insurrection supported from the outside.
1959-60 -- The Caribbean. 2d Marine Ground Task Force was
deployed to protect U.S. nationals during the Cuban crisis.
1962 -- Cuba. President Kennedy instituted a "quarantine"
on the shipment of offensive missiles to Cuba from the Soviet
Union. He also warned Soviet Union that the launching of any missile
from Cuba against nations in the Western Hemisphere would bring
about U.S. nuclear retaliation on the Soviet Union. A negotiated
settlement was achieved in a few days.
1962 -- Thailand. The 3d Marine Expeditionary Unit landed
on May 17, 1962 to support that country during the threat of Communist
pressure from outside; by Jul 30 the 5000 marines had been withdrawn.
1962-75 -- Laos. From October 1962 until 1976, the United
States played a role of military support in Laos.
1964 -- Congo. The United States sent four transport planes
to provide airlift for Congolese troops during a rebellion and
to transport Belgian paratroopers to rescue foreigners.
1964-73 -- Vietnam War. U.S. military advisers had been
in South Vietnam a decade, and their numbers had been increased
as the military position the Saigon government became weaker.
After the attacks on U.S. destroyers in the Tonkin Gulf, President
Johnson asked for a resolution expressing U.S. determination to
support freedom and protect peace in Southeast Asia. Congress
responded with the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, expressing support
for "all necessary measures" the President might take
to repel armed attacks against U.S. forces and prevent further
aggression. Following this resolution, and following a Communist
attack on a U.S. installation in central Vietnam, the United States
escalated its participation in the war to a peak of 543 000 in
April 1969.
1965 -- Dominican Republic. The United States intervened
to protect lives and property during a Dominican revolt and sent
more troops as fears grew that the revolutionary forces were coming
increasingly under Communist control.
1967 -- Congo. The United States sent three military transport
aircraft with crews to provide the Congo central government with
logistical support during a revolt.
1970 -- Cambodia. U.S. troops were ordered into Cambodia
to clean out Communist sanctuaries from which Viet Cong and North
Vietnamese attacked U.S and South Vietnamese forces in Vietnam.
The object of this attack, which lasted from April 30 to June
30, was to ensure the continuing safe withdrawal of American forces
from South Vietnam and to assist the program of Vietnamization.
1974 -- Evacuation from Cyprus. United States naval forces
evacuated U.S. civilians during hostilities between Turkish and
Greek Cypriot forces.
1975 -- Evacuation from Vietnam.
On April 3, 1975, President Ford reported U.S. naval vessels,
helicopters, and Marines had been sent to assist in evacuation
of refugees and U.S. nationals from Vietnam. (Note 3)
1975 -- Evacuation from Cambodia. On April 12, 1975, President
Ford reported that he had ordered U.S. military forces to proceed
with the planned evacuation of U.S. citizens from Cambodia.
1975 -- South Vietnam. On April 30 1975, President Ford
reported that a force of 70 evacuation helicopters and 865 Marines
had evacuated about 1,400 U.S. citizens and 5,500 third country
nationals and South Vietnamese from landing zones near the U.S.
Embassy in Saigon and the Tan Son Nhut Airfield.
1975 -- Mayaguez incident. On May 15, 1975, President Ford
reported he had ordered military forces to retake the SS Mayaguez,
a merchant vessel en route from Hong Kong to Thailand with U.S.
citizen crew which was seized from Cambodian naval patrol boats
in international waters and forced to proceed to a nearby island.
1976 -- Lebanon. On July 22 and 23, 1974, helicopters from
five U.S. naval vessels evacuated approximately 250 Americans
and Europeans from Lebanon during fighting between Lebanese factions
after an overland convoy evacuation had been blocked by hostilities.
1976 -- Korea. Additional forces were sent to Korea after
two American military personnel were killed while in the demilitarized
zone between North and South Korea for the purpose of cutting
down a tree.
1978 -- Zaire. From May 19 through June 1978, the United
States utilized military transport aircraft to provide logistical
support to Belgian and French rescue operations in Zaire.
1980 -- Iran. On April 26, 1980, President Carter reported
the use of six U.S. transport planes and eight helicopters in
an unsuccessful attempt to rescue American hostages being held
in Iran.
1981 -- El Salvador. After a guerilla offensive against the government of El Salvador, additional U.S. military advisers were sent to El Salvador, bringing the total to approximately 55, to assist in training government forces in counterinsurgency.
1981 --Libya. On August 19, 1981, U.S. planes based on the carrier Nimitz shot down two Libyan jets over the Gulf of Sidra after one of the Libyan jets had fired a heat-seeking missile. The United States periodically held freedom of navigation exercises in the Gulf of Sidra, claimed by Libya as territorial waters but considered international waters by the United States.
1982 -- Sinai. On March 19, 1982, President Reagan reported the deployment of military personnel and equipment to participate in the Multinational Force and Observers in the Sinai. Participation had been authorized by the Multinational Force and Observers Resolution, Public Law 97-132.
1982 -- Lebanon. On August 21, 1982, President Reagan reported the dispatch of 80 marines to serve in the multinational force to assist in the withdrawal of members of the Palestine Liberation force from Beirut. The Marines left Sept. 20, 1982.
1982 -- Lebanon. On September 29, 1982, President Reagan reported the deployment of 1200 marines to serve in a temporary multinational force to facilitate the restoration of Lebanese government sovereignty. On Sept. 29, 1983, Congress passed the Multinational Force in Lebanon Resolution (P.L. 98-119) authorizing the continued participation for eighteen months.
1983 -- Egypt. After a Libyan plane bombed a city in Sudan on March 18, 1983, and Sudan and Egypt appealed for assistance, the United States dispatched an AWACS electronic surveillance plane to Egypt.
1983-89 -- Honduras. In July 1983 the United States undertook a series of exercises in Honduras that some believed might lead to conflict with Nicaragua. On March 25, 1986, unarmed U.S. military helicopters and crewmen ferried Honduran troops to the Nicaraguan border to repel Nicaraguan troops.
1983 -- Chad. On August 8, 1983, President Reagan reported the deployment of two AWACS electronic surveillance planes and eight F-15 fighter planes and ground logistical support forces to assist Chad against Libyan and rebel forces.
1983 -- Grenada. On October 25, 1983, President Reagan reported a landing on Grenada by Marines and Army airborne troops to protect lives and assist in the restoration of law and order and at the request of five members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States.
1984 -- Persian Gulf. On June 5, 1984, Saudi Arabian jet fighter planes, aided by intelligence from a U.S. AWACS electronic surveillance aircraft and fueled by a U.S. KC-10 tanker, shot down two Iranian fighter planes over an area of the Persian Gulf proclaimed as a protected zone for shipping.
1985 -- Italy . On October 10, 1985, U.S. Navy pilots intercepted an Egyptian airliner and forced it to land in Sicily. The airliner was carrying the hijackers of the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro who had killed an American citizen during the hijacking.
1986 --Libya. On March 26, 1986, President Reagan reported to Congress that, on March 24 and 25, U.S. forces, while engaged in freedom of navigation exercises around the Gulf of Sidra, had been attacked by Libyan missiles and the United States had responded with missiles.
1986 -- Libya. On April 16, 1986, President Reagan reported that U.S. air and naval forces had conducted bombing strikes on terrorist facilities and military installations in Libya.
1986 -- Bolivia. U.S. Army personnel and aircraft assisted Bolivia in anti-drug operations.
1987-88 -- Persian Gulf. After the Iran-Iraq War resulted in several military incidents in the Persian Gulf, the United States increased U.S. Navy forces operating in the Persian Gulf and adopted a policy of reflagging and escorting Kuwaiti oil tankers through the Gulf. President Reagan reported that U.S. ships had been fired upon or struck mines or taken other military action on September 23, October 10, and October 20, 1987 and April 19, July 4, and July 14, 1988. The United States gradually reduced its forces after a cease-fire between Iran and Iraq on August 20, 1988.
1988 -- Panama. In mid-March and April 1988, during a period of instability in Panama and as pressure grew for Panamanian military leader General Manuel Noriega to resign, the United States sent 1,000 troops to Panama, to "further safeguard the canal, U.S. lives, property and interests in the area." The forces supplemented 10,000 U.S. military personnel already in Panama.
1989 -- Libya. On January 4, 1989, two U.S. Navy F-14 aircraft based on USS John F. Kennedy shot down two Libyan jet fighters over the Mediterranean Sea about 70 miles north of Libya. The U.S. pilots said the Libyan planes had demonstrated hostile intentions.
1989 -- Panama. On May 11, 1989, in response to General Noriega's disregard of the results of the Panamanian election, President Bush ordered a brigade- sized force of approximately 1,900 troops to augment the estimated 11,000 U.S. forces already in the area.
1989 -- Andean Initiative in War on Drugs. On September 15, 1989, President Bush announced that military and law enforcement assistance would be sent to help the Andean nations of Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru combat illicit drug producers and traffickers. By mid-September there were 50- 100 U.S. military advisers in Colombia in connection with transport and training in the use of military equipment, plus seven Special Forces teams of 2-12 persons to train troops in the three countries.
1989 -- Philippines. On December 2, 1989, President Bush reported that on December 1 U.S. fighter planes from Clark Air Base in the Philippines had assisted the Aquino government to repel a coup attempt. In addition, 100 marines were sent from the U.S. Navy base at Subic Bay to protect the U.S. Embassy in Manila.
1989 -- Panama. On December 21, 1989, President Bush reported that he had ordered U.S. military forces to Panama to protect the lives of American citizens and bring General Noriega to justice. By February 13, 1990, all the invasion forces had been withdrawn.
1990 -- Liberia. On August 6, 1990, President Bush reported that a reinforced rifle company had been sent to provide additional security to the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia, and that helicopter teams had evacuated U.S. citizens from Liberia.
1990 -- Saudi Arabia. On August 9, 1990, President Bush reported that he had ordered the forward deployment of substantial elements of the U.S. armed forces into the Persian Gulf region to help defend Saudi Arabia after the August 2 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. On November 16, 1990, he reported the continued buildup of the forces to ensure an adequate offensive military option.
1991 -- Iraq. On January 18, 1991, President Bush reported that he had directed U.S. armed forces to commence combat operations on January 16 against Iraqi forces and military targets in Iraq and Kuwait, in conjunction with a coalition of allies and U.N. Security Council resolutions. On January 12 Congress had passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force against Iraq Resolution (P.L. 102-1). Combat operations were suspended on February 28, 1991.
1991 -- Iraq. On May 17, 1991, President Bush stated in a status report to Congress that the Iraqi repression of the Kurdish people had necessitated a limited introduction of U.S. forces into northern Iraq for emergency relief purposes.
1991 -- Zaire. On September 25-27, 1991, after widespread looting and rioting broke out in Kinshasa, U.S. Air Force C-141s transported 100 Belgian troops and equipment into Mnshasa. U.S. planes also carried 300 French troops into the Central African Republic and hauled back American citizens and third country nationals from locations outside Zaire.
1992 -- Sierra Leone. On May 3, 1992, U.S. military planes evacuated Americans from Sierra Leone, where military leaders had overthrown the government.
1992 -- Kuwait. On August 3, 1992, the United States began a series of military exercises in Kuwait, following Iraqi refusal to recognize a new border drawn up by the United Nations and refusal to cooperate with U.N. inspection teams.
1992 -- Iraq. On September 16, 1992 President Bush stated in a status report that he had ordered U.S. participation in the enforcement of a prohibition against Iraqi flights in a specified zone in southern Iraq, and aerial reconnaissance to monitor Iraqi compliance with the cease-fire resolution.
1992 -- Somalia. On December 10, 1992, President Bush reported that he had deployed U.S. armed forces to Somalia in response to a humanitarian crisis and a U.N. Security Council Resolution determining that the situation constituted a threat to international peace. This operation, called Operation Restore Hope, was part of a U.S.-led United Nations Unified Task Force (UNITAF) and came to an end on May 4, 1993. U.S. forces continued to participate in the successor United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II), which the U.N. Security Council authorized to assist Somalia in political reconciliation and restoration of peace.
1993 -- Iraq. On January 19, 1993, President Bush said in a status report that on December 27, 1992, U.S. aircraft shot down an Iraqi aircraft in the prohibited zone; on January 13 aircraft from the United States and coalition partners had attacked missile bases in southern Iraq; and further military actions had occured on January 17 and 18. Administration officials said the United States was deploying a battalion task force to Kuwait to underline the continuing U.S. commitment to Kuwaiti independence.
1993 -- Iraq. On January 21, 1993, shortly after his inauguration, President Clinton said the United States would continue the Bush policy on Iraq, and U.S. aircraft fired at targets in Iraq after pilots sensed Iraqi radar or anti-aircraft fire directed at them.
1993 -- Bosnia-Hercegovina. On February 28, 1993, the United States bagan an airdrop of relief supplies aimed at Muslims surrounded by Serbian forces in Bosnia.
1993 -- Bosnia-Hercegovina. On April 13, 1993, President Clinton reported U.S. forces were participating in a NATO air action to enforce a U.N. ban on all unauthorized military flights over Bosnia-Hercegovina.
1993 -- Iraq. In a status report on Iraq of May 24, President Clinton said that on April 9 and April 18 U.S. warplanes had bombed or fired missiles at Iraqi anti-aircraft sites which had tracked U.S. aricraft.
1993 -- Somalia. On June 10, 1993, President Clinton reported that in response to attacks against U.N. forces in Somalia by a factional leader, the U.S. Quick Reaction Force in the area had participated in military action to quell the violence. The quick reaction force was part of the U.S. contribution to a success On July 1, President Clinton reported further air and ground military operations on June 12 and June 17 aimed at neutralizing military capabilities that had impeded U.N. efforts to deliver humanitarian relief and promote national reconstruction, and additional instances occurred in the following months.
1993 -- Iraq. On June 28, 1993, President Clinton reported that on June 26 U.S. naval forces had launched missiles against the Iraqi Intelligence Service's headquarters in Baghdad in response to an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate former President Bush in Kuwait in April 1993.
1993 -- Iraq. In a status report of July 22, 1993, President Clinton said on June 19 a U.S. aircraft had fired a missile at an Iraqi anti-aircraft site displaying hostile intent. U.S. planes also bombed an Iraqi missile battery on August 19, 1993.
1993 -- Macedonia. On July 9, 1993, President Clinton reported the deployment of 350 U.S. armed forces to Macedonia to participate in the U.N. Protection Force to help maintain stability in the area of former Yugoslavia.
(Note 1.) This list through 1975 is reprinted with few changes from: U.S. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations [now Foreign Affairs]. Subcommittee on International Security and Scientific Affairs. Background Information on the Use of U.S. Armed Forces in Foreign Countries, 1975 Revision. Committee print, 94th Congress, Ist session. Prepared by the Foreign Affairs Division, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. 84 p.
(Note 2.) Other lists include: Goldwater, Senator Barry. War Without Declaration. A Chronological List of 199 U.S. Military Hostilities Abroad Without a Declaration of War. 1798-1972. Congressional Record, V. 119, July 20, 1973: S14174-14183; U.S. Department of State. Armed Actions Taken by the United States Without a Declaration of War, 1789-1967. Research Project 806A. Historical Studies Division. Bureau of Public Affairs; Collins, John M. America's Small Wars. New York, Brassey's, 1990; For a discussion of the evolution of lists of military actions and legal authorization for various actions, see Wormuth, Francis D. and Edwin B. Firmage, To Chain the Dog of War; the War Power of Congress in History and Law. Dallas, Southern Methodist University Press, 1986. p. 133-149.
(Note 3.) This and subsequent mentions of Presidential reports refer to reports the President has submitted to Congress that might be considered pursuant to the War Powers Resolution (Public Law 91-148, November 7, 1973). For a discussion of the War Powers Resolution and various types of reports required under it, see The War Powers Resolution: Eighteen Years of Experience, CRS Report 92- 133 F; or The War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance, CRS Issue Brief IB81050, updated regularly.
12 September 1997