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African-American Soldiers After World War I: Had Race Relations Changed?
"The Crisis says, first your Country, then your Rights!
Certain honest thinkers among us hesitate at that last sentence. They say it is all well to be idealistic, but is it not true that while we have fought our country’s battles for one hundred fifty years, we have not gained our rights? No, we have gained them rapidly and effectively by our loyalty in time of trial."
—W.E.B. DuBois, from Buffalo Soldiers at Huachuca: Racial Awareness After the War
on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Great War Primary Documents Archive
Introduction
W.E.B. DuBois, an African American intellectual, whose call for racial equality marked him as a radical thinker in his era, strongly supported the war effort, but the patriotism of African American soldiers was not recognized or rewarded by white military commanders as they deserved.
For example, the public and private remarks of General John Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in Europe, expose the often hypocritical attitudes toward African Americans among many white Americans in the early 20th century.
“We must not eat with them, must not shake hands with them, seek to talk to them or to meet with them outside the requirements of military service. We must not commend too highly these troops, especially in front of white Americans…”
—General John J. Pershing, in a secret communiqué concerning African-American troops sent to the French military stationed with the American army, August 7, 1918, available on Stories to Tell: African Americans in the Military on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource National Park Service: Links to the Past
“I cannot commend too highly the spirit shown among the colored combat troops, who exhibit fine capacity for quick training and eagerness for the most dangerous work.”
—General John J. Pershing, in Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War (Preface) on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource Great War Primary Documents Archive
Despite institutionalized prejudice, hundreds of thousands of African Americans fought in the U.S. military during World War I. Even as most African Americans did not reap the benefits of American democracy—so central to the rhetoric of World War I—many still chose to support a nation that denied them full citizenship. What were their experiences back home when the war was over?
In this lesson, students view archival photographs, combine their efforts to comb through a database of more than 2,000 archival newspaper accounts about race relations in the United States, and read newspaper articles written from different points of view about post-war riots in Chicago.
Note: This lesson may be taught as a stand-alone lesson, as a sequel to the U.S. Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology and The Debate in the United States over The League of Nations curriculum units, and/or as a sequel to the complementary EDSITEment lesson, African American Soldiers in World War I: The 92nd and 93rd Divisions.
Guiding Question:
What was the state of race relations in the U.S. before, during, and after World War I?
Learning Objectives:
After completing the lessons in this unit, students will be able to:
- Compare conditions for African Americans before and after World War I.
- Use an online database for conducting research.
Preparing to Teach This Lesson
- Review the lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested materials and other useful websites. Download and print out documents you will use and duplicate copies as necessary for student viewing.
- Download the blackline masters for this lesson, available here as a PDF file. Print out and make an appropriate number of copies of any handouts you plan to use in class.
- To put the military service of African Americans into historical context, this lesson would be most effective if taught after the students have studied World War I. If desired, this lesson may be taught after either or both of the complementary EDSITEment curriculum units U.S. Entry into World War I: A Documentary Chronology and The Debate in the United States over The League of Nations.
- If your class has completed the complementary lesson, African American Soldiers in World War I: The 92nd and 93rd Divisions, feel free to skip Part 1, below, though the second and third activities in it are not identical to those in the prequel.
- The research activity for Part 2, below, can best be accomplished using a computer lab where small groups (or even individuals, with sufficient computer access) can conduct independent research. Otherwise, stagger computer use to allow time for research; this will lengthen the days necessary for completion of the lesson.
- In this lesson, students conduct online research of newspaper accounts. The research in the complementary lesson, African American Soldiers in World War I: The 92nd and 93rd Divisions, was conducted using pre-selected documents. For this lesson, students select documents they think are pertinent from a database of more than 2,000. Consider assigning small groups or individuals responsibility for as many as 100 documents (or as few as 20—one page of links) by number (101-200, for example). Hints for screening documents are given in the lesson plan.
- For background on and context for African Americans during World War I, consult the following links from the EDSITEment-reviewed resource Internet Public Library:
- World War I and African Americans on Africana.com offers a concise but wide-ranging summary of conditions for African Americans before, during, and after World War I. The article briefly discusses such matters as:
- The belief among African Americans that military service would lead, as W.E.B. DuBois said, to "the right to vote and the right to work and the right to live without insult."
- The objections of some white Americans to drafting African Americans.
- The history of African Americans in the military in the years prior to World War I.
- The pressure exerted by the NAACP (and others) for the establishment of officer training for African Americans.
- The increase in the migration of African Americans from the South to the North to take advantage of job opportunities in industry due to the wartime economy.
- The history of African Americans in military service during World War I.
- Conditions for African Americans after World War I.
Some classes would benefit from reading the article as part of the lesson.
- Historic Context for the African-American Military Experience provides a detailed account of African Americans in the Army in World War I and a brief history of African American Naval Service, 1865-1917.
Suggested Activities
1. Context and Background
2. United States Race Relations
3. The Chicago Riots
1. Context and Background
NOTE: Classes that have completed the companion EDSITEment lesson, African American Soldiers in World War I: The 92nd and 93rd Divisions, should start with Part 2, below. The following brief, optional activities here provide some context and background for contemporary students.
WWI: Not That Long Ago
To our students, World War I must seem quite distant. Yet the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed resource Congress Link, reported that, as of May 2001, 2,503 veterans of World War I were still alive. A living link to that conflict remains, but it is vanishing. If desired, share with the class the chart with the heading “It is estimated that the number of living World War I veterans will be:” (last chart on the page) from the online publication America’s Wars, May 2001, available on the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs website, for projections of the numbers of surviving World War I veterans until 2018.
Conditions for African Americans Before World War I
Some background information would be useful for any students unaware of the conditions for African Americans civilians in the United States prior to the war. Commonly accepted beliefs and practices of the day effectively limited their rights. African American Odyssey, an exhibit of the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Memory, offers an Introduction to World War I and Postwar Society. Share with the class the section “Guinn vs. United States” to help students begin to appreciate the ways African Americans were prevented from enjoying full citizenship. If desired, look at the accompanying document NAACP Board minutes, June 3, 1913. What were some of the other issues on the NAACP agenda (inter-marriage, vigilance, federal aid to education)? If desired, share other exhibits and documents on the page. Other exhibits in the Introduction to World War I and Postwar Society touch on housing segregation and the work of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs for the community and against voting discrimination and lynching.
The article World War I and African Americans on Africana.com, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed resource Internet Public Library, offers a wide-ranging though concise summary of conditions for African Americans before, during, and after World War I. Some classes would benefit from reading it.
Why Did They Fight?
Share with students the wartime poster True Sons of Freedom on the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Memory. What does the poster depict? What was the likely purpose of the poster? To what attitudes among African Americans was the poster attempting to appeal?
Share any or all of the following photographs and full captions from the collection of the National Archives, available through the EDSITEment-reviewed resource Digital Classroom. The last four are about the reception of the universally praised 369th Infantry. If desired, use the Photo Analysis Worksheet, also on Digital Classroom.
- 351st Field Artillery: African American troops on the deck of the Louisville. Part of the Squadron "A" 351st Field Artillery, African American troops who returned on the transport Louisville were mostly from Pennsylvania.
- Salvation Army Lassies giving sweets to returned African American soldiers: Two soldiers of the 351st Field Artillery, which returned on the Louisville, receiving candy from the Salvation Army Lassies that welcome every troopship that comes to port at all times and in all kinds of weather.
- Officers of 366th Infantry back on Aquitania: These officers, all of whom have been returned with their troops on the Aquitania are (left to right) Lieutenant C.L. Abbot, South Dakota; Captain Joseph L. Lowe, Pacific Grove, California; Lieutenant A.R. Fisher, Lyles, Indiana, winner of Distinguished Service Cross; and Captain E. White, Pine Bluff, Arkansas.
- 367th Regiment Infantry, the "Buffaloes," presented with colors: The "Buffaloes" singing the National Anthem in front of the Union League Club, New York City.
- Parade of Famous 369th Infantry on Fifth Avenue, New York City: Colonel "Bill" Hayward's famous "Hell Fighters" of the 369th Infantry march by crowds at the New York Public Library, 42nd Street and Fifth Avenue.
- Passing the reviewing stand: In the stand at this parade in honor of returned fighters are Governor Al Smith, Governor Charles S. Whitman, Rodman Wanamaker, Major General Barry, and acting mayor Moran Admiral Gleaves.
- Children along parade route
- African American Jazz bandleader back with 15th New York: Lieutenant James Reese Europe, who for four years was New York Society’s favorite orchestra (dance) leader, formerly with Vernon Castle, returned with his regiment, the 369th Infantry.
What do these photographs indicate about how African-American soldiers were received by the community and the white establishment when they first returned from the war?
2. United States Race Relations
In preparation for this activity, show the class how to use the Subject Index of the African American Experience in Ohio, on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource American Memory, to call up all the documents in the database on “United States Race Relations.” On the Subject Index page, click on “Youth.” Next, choose “United States--Race relations.” Page one, with links to the first 20 documents, appears. Using the link to “Next Page,” students can move to particular pages.
On page one, click on “$400,000 for Two Mulattoes [from newspaper]” to go to the bibliography page for this article. Here you can learn the date and source of the document. To view a digitized copy of the document, choose “View This Item.” Students choosing documents may be able to eliminate an item on the basis of its title, date, or source. Or, they may have to skim through the text. Most of the newspaper articles are very short.
Share with the class the “Homecoming” section of Black Yankee: An Interview with Thomas Davis, First World War Veteran on World War I: Trenches on the Web, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website Internet Public Library. How do Mr. Davis’s remarks reflect his opinion of race relations before and after World War I? In the following activity, students will attempt to find evidence from Ohio’s African American press that supports or contradicts Mr. Davis’ perceptions.
Assign students to balanced groups (adjust the size according to computer availability) or to work individually if sufficient computers are available. Inform students that they will now have the opportunity to conduct authentic historical research to discover what attitudes about race relations were expressed in Ohio’s African-American press before, during, and after World War I. A search on “United States Race Relations” in the Subject Index of African American Experience in Ohio, on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource American Memory, yields more than 2,300 documents. It would be very time-consuming for an individual to go through that many entries, but students can divide up the task to enable the screening of many documents. Consider assigning individuals or groups as many as 100 documents (or as few as 20) by number (for example, 101-200). Using the title and information on the bibliography page, students can quickly screen many articles, reading through only the most promising.
Each group/individual is responsible for locating six documents:
- Two reflecting race relations before World War I.
- Two reflecting race relations during World War I.
- Two reflecting race relations after World War I.
If desired, students can use the handout “Accounts in the African-American Press in Ohio,” on page 1 of the PDF file (see Preparing to Teach This Lesson, above, for download instructions), to summarize what they find.
In preparation for the next activity, distribute one of the six articles about the Chicago Riots (listed in Part 3, below) to every student to be read at home or in class, if time permits.
3. The Chicago Riots
Share with students the basic introduction found in all of the articles below from the EDSITEment-reviewed website History Matters:
As U.S. soldiers returned from Europe in the aftermath of World War I, scarce housing and jobs heightened racial and class antagonisms across urban America. African-American soldiers, in particular, came home from the war expecting to enjoy the full rights of citizenship that they had fought to defend overseas. In the spring and summer of 1919, murderous race riots erupted in 22 American cities and towns. Chicago experienced the most severe of these riots.
Divide the class into six groups, and assign each group one of the following articles:
- From African American Experience in Ohio on the EDSITEment-reviewed resource American Memory:
- “Truth About Riot! Latest Observations on the Chicago Riot,” published August 9, 1919, by The Cleveland, an African-American newspaper (NOTE: Not as long as it might seem at six pages.).
- From the EDSITEment-reviewed website History Matters:
Allow time for students to analyze their assigned articles. Download, copy, and distribute the handout “The Chicago Riots: One Point of View” on page 2 of the PDF file (see Preparing to Teach This Lesson, above, for download instructions). Student groups should respond to each question regarding their assigned account of the Chicago Riots.
Gather the class. Allow groups time to share the information from their article. When all groups are done, attempt to arrive at a statement for each of the following:
- The immediate cause of the riot.
- The basic facts of the riot.
- The underlying causes of the riot.
- A reasonable attempt at a solution that could have been implemented to address the underlying problems.
Assessing the Lesson
Citing some specific evidence, have each student take a stand in one paragraph on the question, “What was the state of race relations after World War I?” Allow volunteers to share. Discuss as a class.
Extending the Lesson
- The class can get involved in the Veteran’s History Project, a project of the Library of Congress, via the EDSITEment-reviewed website American Memory.
- Students can conduct research to learn more about the 93rd Division, the other African-American division (along with the 92nd), starting with the following EDSITEment-reviewed resources:
- African American Experience in Ohio on American Memory (Search for “93rd” and/or its regiment numbers: 369, 370, 371, 372)
- 93rd Division--Detached Service by Segregated Units and The Yanks Arrive in Europe on World War I: Trenches on the Web, a link from Internet Public Library
- 93rd Division [369th, 370th, 371st, 372nd Infantry Rgts], a publication of the United States Government Printing Office, available online through the U.S. Army Center of Military History, a link from Internet Public Library
- Scott’s Official History of The American Negro in the World War, available on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Great War Primary Documents Archive, offers many stories of heroism during World War I. Of specific interest in that regard is CHAPTER XVIII--NEGRO HEROES OF THE WAR and its stories of heroes such as Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts.
- Scott considers the experiences of African-American veterans during the war in Chapter XXX--Did The Negro Soldier Get A Square Deal?. He reflects on their experiences upon returning to the United States in Chapter XXXI--What The Negro Got Out Of The War.
- James Reese Europe is sometimes credited with introducing jazz to Europe. He led both the 169th Regiment Military Band (the "Harlem Hellfighters") and also the first African-American troops into combat. Students can learn more about Europe using the following EDSITEment-reviewed resources:
- An Anthem for Doomed Youth, on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Great War Primary Documents Archive, offers short accounts of and some pieces from WWI writers.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
- American
Memory
[http://memory.loc.gov/]
- Congress
Link
[http://www.congresslink.org/search/sitesearch.htm]
- Digital
Classroom
[http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/index.html]
- Photo Analysis
Worksheet
[http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/analysis_worksh
eets/
photo.html]
- 351st
Field Artillery [African American] Troops on the Deck of the "Louisville." Part of
the Squadron "A" 351st Field Artillery,
[African American] troops who returned
on the Transport Louisville.
These men are mostly from
Pennsylvania.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/30/25-2988a.gif]
- 367th
Regiment Infantry, The "Buffaloes", presented with colors.
The "Buffaloes"
singing the National Anthem in front of
the Union League Club, New York
City
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3080a.gif]
- American
(African American) soldiers' camp in France.
Machine gun instruction,
1918
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3103a.gif]
- American
Negro battalion building railroad. American Negro
soldiers building a railroad
in France.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3105a.gif]
- Celebrations for
soldiers. Kalamazoo, Michigan.
[African American] troops
leaving
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3113a.gif]
- Children Along Parade
Route
[http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/
wwi_369th_infan
try/images/parade_spectators.gif]
- Has eleven
sons in service. Ike Sims of Atlanta,
Georgia, 87 years old, has eleven sons in
the service.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3085a.gif]
- Honoring
men about to leave.
[African American] women open a club for their men in the
service, Newark, New
Jersey.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3037a.gif]
- Jazz Band
and Leader Back with (African American)
15th New York. Lieutenant James Reese
Europe who for four years
[was] New York Society's favorite orchestra (dance)
leader formerly with Vernon Castle
returned with his regiment the 369th
Infantry.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3008a.gif]
- Largest
Murder Trial in the History of the United States.
Scene during Court Martial of
64 members of the 24th Infantry United States of America on trial for mutiny and
murder of 17 people at Houston, Texas August 23, 1917.
Trial held in Gift
Chapel Fort Sam Houston. Trial started November 1, 1917, Brigadier General George
K. Hunter presiding.
Colonel J.A. Hull, Judge Advocate, Council for Defense,
Major Harvy S. Grier. Major D.V. Sutphin, Assistant Advocate.
Prisoners guarded
by 19th Infantry Company C, Captain Carl J.
Adler.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/30/25-2987a.gif]
- Negroes
enroll for officer's training camp. Photograph shows Negroes
enlisting at the
(African American) Young Men's Christian Association for the Negro Officers'
Training Camp at Fort Des Moines, Iowa. A. Merrill Willis (sitting) was the
first man to enlist.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3115a.gif]
- Officers
of 366th Infantry Back on Aquitania. These officers, all of whom have
been
returned with their troops on the Aquitania. Left to right: Lieutenant C.L. Abbot,
South Dakota;
Captain Joseph L. Lowe, Pacific Grove, California; Lieutenant
A.R. Fisher, Lyles, Indiana,
winner of Distinguished Service Cross; Captain E.
White, Pine Bluff,
Arkansas.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/30/25-2992a.gif]
- Parade in
honor of returned fighters. Passing the reviewing stand. In the stand are:
Governor Al Smith, Governor Charles S. Whitman, Rodman Wanamaker, Major General
Barry, acting mayor Moran,
Admiral
Gleaves.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3011a.gif]
- Parade of
Famous 369th Infantry on Fifth Avenue New York City. Colonel "Bill" Hayward's
famous "Hell Fighters"
of the 369th Infantry march by crowds at the New York
Public Library 42nd Street and Fifth
Avenue.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/30/25-2997a.gif]
- Salvation
Army lassies giving sweets to returned [African American] soldiers. Two soldiers of
the 351st Field Artillery
which returned on the "Louisville" receiving candy
from the Salvation Army Lassies that welcome every
troopship that comes to port
at all times and in all kinds of
weather.
[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3127a.gif]
- Great War Primary Documents
Archive
[http://www.lib.byu.edu/%7Erdh/wwi/]
- History
Matters
[http://historymatters.gmu.edu]
- Harlem
1900-1940: An African American
Community
[http://www.si.umich.edu/CHICO/Harlem/index.html]
- Internet Public
Library
[http://www.ipl.org]
- National Park Service: Links to the
Past
[http://www.cr.nps.gov/]
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![Celebrations for soldiers. Kalamazoo, Michigan. [African American] troops leaving](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090117060218/http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/32/25-3113a.gif){kind=link}
![Honoring men about to leave. [African American] women open a club for their men in the service, Newark, New Jersey.](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090117060218/http://media.nara.gov/media/images/25/31/25-3037a.gif){kind=link}
