This document provides a comprehensive view issues impacting the prevention of work-related roadway crashes. It also identifies the groups of workers at greatest risk of traffic crashes, summarizes key issues that contribute to work-related roadway crashes, and recommends preventive measures for employers and other stakeholders.

Contents

Foreword

Work-related roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from traumatic injuries in the U.S. workplace. They continue to exact a substantial toll on American workers, accounting for nearly 12,000 deaths between 1992 and 2000. Deaths and injuries from these roadway crashes result in increased costs to employers and lost productivity. They bring needless pain and suffering to family, friends, and coworkers.

Prevention of work-related roadway crashes poses one of the greatest challenges in occupational safety. The roadway is a unique work environment. Compared with other work settings, employers’ ability to control working conditions and to exert direct supervisory controls is limited. Traffic volumes and road construction continue to increase. Workers may be pressured to drive faster and for longer periods and to use technologies that may lead to inattention to the driving task. The problem of work-related roadway crashes affects those who occasionally drive personal vehicles on the job as well as those who routinely drive commercial motor vehicles over long distances.

Despite these challenges, progress can be made in reducing the toll of work-related roadway crashes on American workers and their families. Employers, government agencies, policy makers, industry, and the research community must all work actively toward this goal. This document provides a comprehensive view of the problem. It also identifies the groups of workers at greatest risk of traffic crashes, summarizes key issues that contribute to work-related roadway crashes, and recommends preventive measures for employers and other stakeholders.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), as the national agency responsible for occupational safety and health research, is committed to reducing the toll of work-related roadway crashes on American workers. We look forward to continuing to work with our public- and private-sector partners who have similar interests in protecting American workers who drive on the job

John Howard, M.D. Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Executive Summary

WORK-RELATED ROADWAY CRASHES—THE SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

In the United States, roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from unintentional injury in the general population and also in the workplace, where they accounted for 1,347 (23.5%) civilian worker deaths in 2000. This document provides an overview of current issues affecting work-related roadway crashes and focuses on preventing injuries and fatalities to vehicle drivers and passengers.

No single satisfactory source of data exists for worker injuries and fatalities resulting from vehicle-related roadway crashes. Specialized data systems for work-related fatalities may identify high proportions of cases but lack necessary detail about the circumstances and risk factors surrounding vehicle-related crashes. On the other hand, systems designed to collect information about all vehicle-related crashes contain more pertinent data elements but may not determine the work status of persons involved in crashes.

Data from the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI), a program of the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), indicate that 11,952 work-related highway fatalities of civilian workers occurred during 1992–2000, with an average annual rate of 1.08 deaths per 100,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) workers. These fatalities increased in number by 18.7% from 1992 to 2000 and were the leading cause of occupational fatalities throughout the period.

CFOI data indicate that workers employed in the Transportation, Communications, and Public Utilities industry division,^* which includes commercial trucking, were at highest risk of fatality. Those employed in transportation and material moving occupations (truck drivers in particular) had far higher fatality rates than workers in any other occupation group. Fatality risk varied across age groups; workers aged 65 or older had more than three times the fatality risk of workers of all ages, and workers aged 20 or younger (who might be expected to have lower levels of exposure to vehicles in the workplace) had fatality rates that were similar to those for workers of all ages.

According to CFOI data, collisions between vehicles accounted for nearly half the fatal events, followed by noncollision events (e.g., loss of control, rollover) and collisions in which the worker’s vehicle left the roadway and struck a stationary object on the roadside. Workers who were occupants of trucks accounted for 58% of all fatalities; nearly half of these were semi-truck occupants. However, crashes involving semi-trucks affect workers in vehicles that collide with semi-trucks as well as pedestrian workers. In recent years, sharp increases in the number of large trucks on the road and in the number of vehicle miles traveled by large trucks have been accompanied by an increase in the number of fatalities involving these vehicles.

Although rates of fatal crash involvement for large trucks (number of vehicles involved per 100 million vehicle miles traveled) declined from 3.8 to 2.6 between 1988 and 1992, they have shown little improvement since that time.

Concerns about motor vehicle safety in the workplace are by no means limited to those surrounding the operation of large trucks. Workers outside the motor carrier industry routinely operate company-owned vehicles for deliveries, sales and repair calls, client visits, and countless other job tasks. In these instances, the employer providing the vehicle generally plays a major role in setting safety, maintenance, and training policy. However, when a worker drives a personal vehicle for work purposes, the employer may have little or no control over vehicle maintenance and selection. The special needs of all three types of operating environments—the motor carrier industry, other vehicle fleets, and personal vehicles used for work purposes—must be considered by companies and policy makers when formulating safety policy.

^*Of the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC).

FEDERAL AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY IN THE WORKPLACE

A number of Federal agencies are responsible for enforcing safety regulations that affect the operation of motor vehicles in the workplace. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), housed in the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), holds primary responsibility for developing and enforcing minimum design and safety performance standards that apply to all vehicles manufactured for sale or use in the United States. Other DOT agencies with related responsibilities include the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA), which enforces comprehensive regulations that cover trucks and passenger vehicles in the motor carrier industry, and the Federal Highway Administration, which develops guidelines and standards for highway design and construction and temporary traffic control.

Other safety regulations enforced by the Department of Labor (DOL) also address motor vehicle operation in the workplace. The DOL’s Employment Standards Administration, Wage and Hour Division, enforces child labor laws that define conditions under which workers under age 18 may operate a motor vehicle. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations covering certain industries are applicable to workers of all ages, but they primarily address the operation of mobile machinery off the highway. Other nonregulatory Federal agencies make recommendations about the safe operation of motor vehicles on the job. The National Transportation Safety Board investigates roadway crashes and develops safety recommendations directed at Federal and State agencies and other groups. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts occupational safety and health research and makes research-based recommendations for the safe operation of motor vehicles in the workplace.

Issues critical to the safe operation of motor vehicles in the workplace

Proactive employer policy can do much to promote vehicle safety on and off the job. Employers can provide fleet vehicles that offer the highest levels of occupant protection in the event of a crash, and they can ensure that these vehicles receive regular inspection and maintenance. Driver competence and readiness are also critical to workplace vehicle safety, thus it is crucial that employers check driving records of prospective workers, ensure that workers have valid driver’s licenses, and provide training appropriate for the vehicle the worker will operate. In addition, employers should not place workers at risk by pressing them to complete deliveries or client contacts within unrealistic time frames. The single most important driver safety policy that employers can implement and enforce is the mandatory use of seat belts. NHTSA estimated that in 2000, the use of seat belts prevented 11,889 fatalities in the United States and could have prevented 9,238 fatalities that did occur [NHTSA 2002a].

Driver fatigue has been identified as a contributor to roadway crashes among workers as well as in the general population. Time of day (especially night driving), duration of wakefulness, inadequate sleep, sleep disorders, and prolonged work hours (including time spent performing nondriving tasks) have all been identified as contributing to the risk of fatigue-related crashes. The number of hours driven is of particular concern to the motor carrier industry. Effective January 4, 2004, revised FMCSA regulations applicable to property-carrying commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers will specify that drivers may not drive

• more than 11 hours following 10 consecutive hours off duty, or
• for any period of time after having been on duty 14 hours following 10 consecutive hours off duty.

Existing FMCSA regulations, which will continue to apply to motor carriers that transport
passengers, specify that drivers may not drive

• more than 10 hours following 8 consecutive hours off duty, or
• for any period of time after having been on duty 15 hours following 8 consecutive hours
  off duty.

Time pressures, the limited number of parking spaces for large trucks in rest areas, and the common industry practice of paying drivers by the mile can also contribute to drivers’ exceeding allowable hours of driving or continuing to drive while fatigued.

Distracted driving, the use of cell phones while driving, and the increased use of other in-vehicle technologies present other safety concerns. Little is known about the content and length of business calls made on cell phones while driving. Research among the general population suggests that hands-free devices are not necessarily a satisfactory alternative, since conducting a conversation while driving creates cognitive demands that result in measurable declines in driver performance. Other technologies such as in-vehicle Internet and on-board navigation systems place additional demands on a driver’s attention. Research has yet to determine the safety consequences of using cell phones and other technologies in combination.

Young drivers may be at increased risk for crashes because they do not have enough experience to recognize, assess, and respond to hazards, and they may be willing to accept higher levels of risk. Many of the factors that increase the risk that young drivers in the general population will be involved in vehicle crashes are also present in the workplace. Young people are not only new behind the wheel, they are also new to the workplace—compounding occupational safety concerns for this population already at high risk for vehicle crashes.

Federal regulations under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) prohibit all on-the-job driving for 16-year-olds and limit the nature and amount of driving permitted for 17-year-olds. However, the FLSA does not cover workers aged 18 and older, who are still in the process of developing driving skills and gaining experience. For this group of inexperienced young adult drivers, employers should consider postponing the assignment of intensive or time-sensitive driving tasks, thereby acting in the spirit of graduated driver licensing laws that grant driving privileges incrementallly.

Normal aging is accompanied by declines in reaction time and visual acuity, reduced ability to divide attention between tasks, and increased difficulty in handling complex and unfamiliar situations. The need to accommodate older drivers is receiving increasing attention in the traffic safety community at large. As increasing numbers of Americans continue to work beyond the traditional retirement age of 65, the special needs of older drivers become a workplace safety issue as well. Employers will increasingly need to evaluate methods for giving older drivers continued opportunities for employment while ensuring that safety is not compromised. In addition, recommended highway changes designed to accommodate older drivers will benefit workers of all ages as well as the general driving population.

MEASURES FOR PREVENTING WORK-RELATED ROADWAY CRASHES

Preventing work-related roadway crashes calls for the application of knowledge from both the occupational safety community and the roadway safety community. The occupational safety community clearly needs to be involved because of its direct interest in ensuring workers’ safety. The roadway safety community needs to be involved because its actions and policies affect the safety of all road users, including workers. Because the types of vehicles, operating environments, and levels of regulation associated with work-related driving are so varied, those responsible for vehicle safety on the job must select from a wide range of prevention strategies. Selected prevention measures recommended by NIOSH are listed here (see Chapter 5 for a complete list).

Employers

• Implement and enforce mandatory seat belt use policies.
• Ensure that no worker is assigned to drive on the job if he or she does not have a valid driver’s license. The license should be appropriate for the type of vehicle to be driven.
• Provide fleet vehicles that offer the highest possible levels of occupant protection in the event of a crash.
• Maintain complete and accurate records of workers’ driving performance. In addition to driver’s license checks for prospective employees, periodic rechecks after hiring are critical.
• Incorporate fatigue management into safety programs.
• Ensure that workers receive the training necessary to operate specialized motor vehicles or equipment.
• Offer periodic screening of vision and general physical health for all workers for whom driving is a primary job duty.
• Avoid requiring workers to drive irregular hours or to extend their workday far beyond their normal working hours as a result of driving responsibilities.
• Establish schedules that allow drivers to obey speed limits and follow applicable hours-of-service regulations.
• Set safety policy in accordance with State graduated driver licensing laws so that company operations do not place younger workers in violation of these laws.
• Assign driving-related tasks to young drivers in an incremental fashion, beginning with limited driving responsibilities and ending with unrestricted assignments.

Policy Makers

• Support field studies to determine the safety consequences of revised FMCSA hours-of-service regulations that will apply to property-carrying CMV drivers beginning January 4, 2004.

Transportation Planners and Traffic Engineers

• Widen pavement markings and use road signs and traffic control devices that are large, well illuminated, well maintained, simple, and concise.
• Use directional turn arrows at busy intersections.
• Use positive barriers in crossovers and transition areas in highway construction zones.
  These changes in highway design, signage, and traffic control devices will help older drivers and all other drivers.

Safety Professionals

• Incorporate information about sharing the road safely with trucks and other large commercial motor vehicles into driver education courses, State driver’s manuals, and workplace driver training programs.

Workers

• Use safety belts while driving on or off the job.
• Avoid placing or taking cell phone calls while operating a motor vehicle, especially in inclement weather, unfamiliar areas, or heavy traffic.
• Avoid other activities such as eating, drinking, or adjusting noncritical vehicle controls while driving.

Public Health Summary

What are the hazards?

Work-related roadway crashes continue to be the leading cause of injury fatalities for workers in the United States. In 2000, roadway crashes killed 1,347 civilian workers and accounted for more than 23% of all workplace fatalities. Although other workplace fatalities have declined in recent years, the number of deaths from roadway crashes increased steadily from 1,135 in 1992 to 1,471 in 1999. In 2000, they decreased to 1,347.

How are workers exposed or put at risk?

In 2000, more than 5.8 million workers were employed in transportation and material moving occupations. More than 4.4 million of these workers were motor vehicle operators, of whom 77% were truck drivers. In addition to these 4.4 million workers whose primary job duty is to operate a motor vehicle, numerous other workers operate motor vehicles as part of their job duties. Some operate fleet vehicles provided by their employers, and others drive personal vehicles while performing their jobs.

What agencies within the Federal government make recommendations related to vehicle safety in the workplace?

Two Federal agencies in the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT)—the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)—hold primary responsibility for developing and enforcing vehicle safety standards. FMCSA standards cover commercial motor carriers, whereas NHTSA regulations set forth design and performance requirements for vehicle manufacturers. The Federal Highway Administration, another agency in the U.S. DOT, develops guidelines and standards for highway design and construction and temporary traffic control. The programs of this agency affect the safety of all road users, including workers who drive on the job. Two agencies within the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) have regulatory responsibilities that affect worker safety. The Employment Standards Administration enforces the child labor provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has regulations for certain industries that primarily address operation of machinery and equipment off the highway. Two other Federal agencies with interest in vehicle safety are engaged primarily in research and investigative activities. The National Transportation Safety Board investigates roadway crashes and develops safety recommendations directed at Federal and State agencies and other groups. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is charged with conducting occupational safety and health research and makes research-based recommendations for the safe operation of motor vehicles in the workplace.

Where is more information available?

The references, additional readings, and online resources cited at the end of this document identify sources that provide more information about work-related roadway crashes. Additional information may also be obtained from NIOSH at www.cdc.gov/niosh. Or call NIOSH at

1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636).

Abbreviations

Acknowledgments

This Hazard Review was developed by the staff of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Nancy Stout, Ed.D., Director, Division of Safety Research, had overall responsibility for the document. Stephanie G. Pratt, Division of Safety Research, was the principal author. The following NIOSH staff provided critical review at various stages of preparation: Timothy Pizatella, Dawn Castillo, Kara Perritt, Roger Rosa, Edward Hitchcock, John Russo, Cynthia Driscoll, and David Votaw. Stephen J. Strotmeyer, M.P.H. (formerly of NIOSH and now with the University of Pittsburgh Injury Research Center), was responsible for initial data analysis and early drafts of the section on fatal injuries to workers. Mr. Strotmeyer also assisted Kimberly A. Faulkner (formerly of NIOSH and now with the University of Pittsburgh) in preparing an early draft of the section on young drivers. Barbara Landreth, Melanie Vunjak, and Cheryl Paul of the NIOSH library in Morgantown, West Virginia, located much of the literature cited in this document. Pauline Elliott, Susan Feldmann, Anne Hamilton, Susan Kaelin, and Jane Weber provided editorial services and desktop design and production.

NIOSH thanks the following persons for their expert review and comment: Deborah Freund and Ralph Craft, both of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration; Cathy Gotschall of the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; Elizabeth Alicandri of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration; Janice Windau and Dino Drudi of the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; Ann Dellinger of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; and Steve Skinner of Cingular Wireless, Inc.

Ordering Information

To receive documents or more information about occupational safety and health topics, contact the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) at:

NIOSH—Publications Dissemination
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226–1998
Telephone: 1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636)
Fax: 513-533-8347
E-mail: pubstaft@cdc.gov

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2003–119

September 2003

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