|
1.1
Definition of Crystalline Silica
Silica
refers to the chemical compound silicon dioxide (SiO2), which
occurs in a crystalline or noncrystalline (amorphous) form. Crystalline
silica may be found in more than one form (polymorphism). The polymorphic
forms of crystalline silica are alpha quartz,
beta quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, keatite, coesite, stishovite,
and moganite [Ampian and Virta 1992; Heaney 1994; Guthrie and Heaney
1995]. Each polymorph is unique in its spacing, lattice structure, and
angular relationship of the atoms. In nature, the alpha (or low) form
of quartz is the most common [Virta 1993]. This form is so abundant
that the term quartz is often used in place of the general term
crystalline silica [BOM 1992; Virta 1993]. Quartz is a common
component of soil and rocks; consequently, workers are potentially exposed
to quartz dust in many occupations and industries (see Section
2.3). Cristobalite and tridymite are found in rocks and soil and
are produced in some industrial operations when alpha quartz or amorphous
silica is heated (such as foundry processes, calcining of diatomaceous
earth, brick and ceramics manufacturing, and silicon carbide production)
[NIOSH 1974; Weill et al. 1994; Virta 1993; Altieri et al. 1984]. Burning
of agricultural waste or products such as rice hulls may also cause
amorphous silica to become cristobalite (a crystalline form) [Rabovsky
1995; IARC 1997]. The other polymorphs (i.e., keatite, coesite, stishovite,
and moganite) are rarely or never observed in nature [Ampian and Virta
1992].
1.2
Current Health Issues
Occupational
exposure to respirable crystalline silica
is a serious but preventable health hazard. Since 1968, reported mortality
associated with silicosis has declined; however, 200 to 300 such deaths
were reported each year during the period 1992-1995 [NIOSH 1996a; Althouse
1998]. Furthermore, the number of silicosis-related deaths among persons
aged 15 to 44 did not decline substantially during 1968-1994, accounting
for 207 of the 14,824 silicosis-related deaths during this period [CDC
1998a,b]. In addition, an unknown number of unreported or undiagnosed
worker deaths occur each year from silicosis and other silica-related
diseases such as pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), lung cancer, and scleroderma.
The number of current cases of silicosis and silica-related disease
in the United States is also unknown.
Prevention
and elimination of silicosis and silica-related disease in the United
States are priorities of the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), and the American
Lung Association [DOL 1996]. International health agencies have also
expressed concern about the continuing occurrence of silicosis and silica-related
diseases. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recently
reviewed the results of post-1986 epidemiologic studies of lung cancer
and occupational exposure to crystalline silica. They concluded that
there is "sufficient evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity
of inhaled crystalline silica in the form of quartz or cristobalite
from occupational sources" (i.e., IARC category "Group 1"
carcinogen) [IARC 1997]. In 1991, the International Labour Office published
a document describing methods for preventing and controlling occupational
lung diseases, including silicosis [ILO 1991]. And in 1993, the Office
of Occupational Health of the World Health Organization (WHO) called
for increased medical surveillance of mineral-dust-exposed workers to
prevent pneumoconioses such as silicosis and asbestosis [WHO 1993].
Epidemiologic studies published after the IARC review [IARC 1997] provide
additional evidence for an exposure-response relationship of respirable
crystalline silica with lung cancer mortality or morbidity (see Section
3.4.2.1).
Several
recent epidemiologic studies indicate that current occupational standards
are not sufficiently protective to prevent the occurrence of chronic
silicosis. Epidemiologic studies of workers in the United States [Kreiss
and Zhen 1996; Steenland and Brown 1995a; Rosenman et al. 1996; Hughes
et al. 1998], Canada [Muir et al. 1989a,b; Muir 1991], Hong Kong [Ng
and Chan 1994], and South Africa [Hnizdo and Sluis Cremer 1993] have
reported significant risks of silicosis over a working lifetime at concentrations
of quartz or respirable dust containing quartz that are below the current
NIOSH recommended exposure limit (REL) [NIOSH 1974], OSHA permissible
exposure limit (PEL) [29 CFR*1910.1000], and the MSHA PEL [30 CFR 56,
57, 70, 71] (see Appendix and Table
12 in Chapter 3).
*Code
of Federal Regulations. See CFR in references.
TB is
an infectious disease that poses a threat to the health of silica-exposed
workers and the public. A survey of U.S. mortality data for 1979
to 1991 reported that TB comortality was at least several times higher
in decedents with silicosis than in decedents with asbestosis, with
coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP), or without silicosis, asbestosis,
or CWP [Althouse et al. 1995]. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), WHO, and the American Thoracic Society (ATS) have
recently published information about risk factors for TB, including
occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica [CDC 1995; WHO
1996; ATS 1997]. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggested
"further investigation" of the health effects of ambient crystalline
silica exposures in potentially sensitive subgroups, including infants
and persons with a respiratory infection or disease such as TB or pneumonia
[EPA 1996].
Recent
epidemiologic studies of occupational exposure to crystalline silica
dust have also reported increased incidence
ofor mortality fromextrapulmonary diseases such as scleroderma,
rheumatoid arthritis, other autoimmune disorders, and renal disease
[ATS 1997].
Experimental
research has shown that crystalline silica is not an inert dust. The
toxicity of crystalline silica particles is related to reactive sites
on the surfaces of silica particles. Further discussion of in vitro
studies of the biologic activity and factors that modify toxicity are
found in Section 3.2.1 and Section
4.
1.3
History of NIOSH Activity
In 1974,
NIOSH reviewed the available health effects data on occupational exposure
to respirable crystalline silica and determined that the principal adverse
health effect was silicosis [NIOSH 1974]. At that time, NIOSH recommended
that occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica dust be
controlled so that workers would not be exposed to the airborne particulate
at a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration
greater than 50 micrograms per cubic meter of air (50 µg/m3
or 0.05 mg/m3), determined during a full-shift sample
for up to a 10-hr workday during a 40-hr workweek. A later NIOSH report
(Review of the Literature on Crystalline Silica) concluded that
additional toxicologic and epidemiologic studies were needed to determine
- the
relationship between respirable crystalline silica dose and the risk
of developing silicosis and lung cancer and
- the
adverse effects of crystalline silica on the kidney [NIOSH 1983a].
Since
then, additional studies reported an increased incidence of malignant
tumors in the lungs of rats exposed to either inhalation or intratracheal
administration of various forms and preparations of respirable crystalline
silica [Holland et al. 1986; Dagle et al. 1986; Groth et al. 1986; Muhle
et al. 1989; Spiethoff et al. 1992]. On the basis of the evidence from
the animal studies published by 1986, IARC concluded that "sufficient
evidence" existed for the carcinogenicity of respirable crystalline
silica in experimental animals but only "limited evidence"
existed for carcinogenicity in humans [IARC 1987]. During the 1988 OSHA
rulemaking activity on air contaminants, NIOSH recommended an exposure
limit of 0.05 mg/m3 "as respirable free
silica for all crystalline forms of silica" to protect workers
from
silicosis and cancer [54 Fed. Reg.* 2521 (1989)]. In addition, NIOSH
testimony referred to the IARC [1987] review and recommended that OSHA
label crystalline silica a potential occupational carcinogen [54 Fed.
Reg. 2521 (1989)].
*Federal
Register. See Fed. Reg. in references.
1.4
Purpose and Scope
The numerous
health effects of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica
are reviewed in the chapters of several recent books [Graham 1998; Davis
1996; Green and Vallyathan 1996; McDonald 1996; Seaton 1995; Morgan
and Reger 1995; Elmes 1994; Goldsmith 1994a,b; Weill et al. 1994; Wagner
1994]. This NIOSH Hazard Review summarizes the health effects of occupational
exposure to respirable crystalline silica reported in literature published
through March 1999. The review emphasizes recent important epidemiologic
studies of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline
silica with regard to
- the
quantitative risk of chronic silicosis,
- lung
cancer,
- autoimmune
disease,
- chronic
renal disease, and
- chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease. In addition, the review describes
limitations of the current sampling and analytical methods for quantifying
occupational exposures to silica.
|