Educational Publications
Posters | Lithographs | Fact Sheets | Brochures
Posters
EOS Science Poster Series
The EOS Science Poster Series is a set of four educational posters that explains what NASA scientists are doing to study and understand Air, Ice, Land, and Water here on Earth.
Lithographs
Science Serving Society Series
Agricultural Competitiveness [4.3MB PDF]
One of our nations most vital needs is a stable and dependable food supply for an ever-increasing population. The Midwest United States is known as America's Breadbasket because it is home to the vast majority of America's productive farmland and is a vital cog in the American economy. Any disruption to the productivity of these lands can have devastating economic consequences. For example, in the summer of 1988, the Midwest United States experienced its worst dry spell since the 1930s causing an estimated $40 billion in crop damages. In contrast, summer 1993 was exceptionally wet, with flooding on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers that wreaked havoc on agricultural lands and caused extensive crop damage.
Air Quality [4.4MB PDF]
The Clean Air Act, created in 1972 and last amended in 1990, responds to the basic societal need for clean, breathable air and recognizes the need to protect this vital natural resource. Congress directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment. Although these regulations have significantly improved the quality of our nation's air over the past 30 years, people in some areas are still exposed to air pollution levels that exceed the NAAQS. Numerous studies have shown significant effects of air pollution on human health, agriculture, ecosystems, and physical infrastructure.
Aviation [4.9MB PDF]
To compete in the global economy of the 21st Century, the United States requires a safe and efficient aviation infrastructure. Developing this infrastructure will require improvements to the safety, security, and capacity of the National Airspace System (NAS), as well as reductions in the environmental effects of aviation—such as noise and air pollution. Likewise, research has shown that the impact of the environment upon aviation—such as severe weather and other natural phenomena—could be substantially mitigated if existing satellite observations could be more fully utilized.
Carbon Management [4.6MB PDF]
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is fundamental for life on Earth. Human beings exhale CO2 as a waste product when they breathe, but plants absorb it in the life-sustaining process of photosynthesis—which human beings depend for the food we eat. CO2 is also a naturally occurring greenhouse gas (not the most efficient such gas but certainly the most abundant); its presence in the atmosphere moderates Earth’s average surface temperature and keeps nighttime temperatures from plunging to extreme cold.
Coastal Management [10.4MB PDF]
Our Earth's coastal regions are a precious natural resource. The United States has over 95,000 miles of shoreline that provide resources for humans; homes for birds, animals and vegetation; and serves as vital ecosystems for many marine species. These shorelines are under siege from a number of natural phenomena. Global warming threatens to raise the level of the oceans and inundate our coastal lands. Harmful algal blooms (HAB), sometimes referred to as Red Tide, are caused by explosive growth of certain rare toxic species of algae, in response to excess nutrients in the water. These algae form the base of the food chain, and thus threaten fish, shellfish, birds, marine mammals, and even humans. The incidence of HAB outbreaks has increased significantly in recent years. Hypoxia refers to low dissolved oxygen concentrations on the ocean bottom that occur when excess nutrients in the water lead to elevated algae concentrations that deprive the plants and animals that dwell in deeper waters of vital life-giving oxygen. Over 7000 square miles of the Gulf of Mexico are hypoxic—the largest swath in the Western Hemisphere. The health of our shores has a major impact on our nations socioeconomic well being, as more than half of our population live in counties that border the sea.
Disaster Management [7.5MB PDF]
Each year, the U.S. government spends billions of dollars to assist regions impacted by natural hazards worldwide such as severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis, blizzards, floods, landslides, volcanic events, wildfires, and earthquakes. Community planners need access to the most accurate and timely environmental information to better understand where their jurisdiction might be vulnerable, and to plan proper responses to these disasters. Emergency response personnel need advanced warning to know when extreme events will occur as well as timely, detailed data to conduct post-event environmental assessments.
Ecological Forecasting [3.8MB PDF]
Ecological forecasting involves the use of Earth observations and models to predict the impacts of environmental changes on the ecosystems upon which we depend for our very existence. It links the physical world of climate and geology to the living world of biology and ecology. Our goal is reliable forecast models of changes in living systems with uncertainties and estimates of error explicitly stated. These models must span spatial scales from molecular to global, as well as take advantage of information across time scales to test and refine the accuracy of our predictions. NASA is currently involved in several international and domestic partnerships under the theme of ecological forecasting.
Energy Management [8.8MB PDF]
Our nation is critically dependent on stable and reliable sources of energy. Traditionally, much of this demand has been met by burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas, but in recent years, considerable evidence has been amassed that these fuels can impact our environment, and alternative sources of fuel have been explored. Nuclear energy has been put forth as a cleaner alternative and used successfully in a few places but this source is not without its own set of environmental concerns. Other alternatives to fossil fuels are now emerging, including renewable energy technologies (RETs) like solar energy and wind power, and biomass fuels such as corn-based ethanol and other species under development. These alternative fuel sources can help reduce mankind’s dependence on fossil fuels and, at the same time, may help to improve our quality of air.
Invasive Species [3MB PDF]
Invasive species may be defined as a non-native plant, animal, or microbe whose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, harm to the economy, the environment, or human health. Increasing globalization—the rapid transportation of people and goods throughout the Earth—provides the opportunity and the mechanism for such species to enter the United States and thrive in new habitats. Each year, the U.S. incurs direct losses of approximately $120 billion dollars due to these invasive species—an annual cost greater than most natural disasters combined.
Public Health [2.2MB PDF]
The spread of chronic and infectious diseases is a serious threat to public health. Research has shown that many chronic and infectious diseases are related to environmental conditions. Organisms such as ticks and mosquitoes (called disease vectors) transport these diseases, and variability in rainfall and temperature has a major influence on the distribution and quantity of these pests. Recent outbreaks of West Nile Virus and other vector-borne diseases have illustrated the importance of having accurate and timely information to predict and respond to epidemics.
Water Management [2.9MB PDF]
The Earth is easily distinguishable from other planets in our solar system by the abundance of water on its surface. Water covers approximately 70% of our world’s surface, so it would seem that finding enough water suitable for human consumption, commerce, and ecosystems is a trivial task. But, only 2.5% of the Earth’s water is fresh and of that amount, more than two-thirds is locked away in glaciers and polar ice caps and is not available to for use by society. Therefore, fresh water is actually a limited resource. Increased demand from an ever-growing population threatens to deplete precious water resources.
1997-98 El Niño [405KB PDF]
This image shows the progression of the 1997-98 El Niño as derived rom the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite.
African Dust Leads to Large Toxic Algal Bloom [1.2MB PDF]
Each year, several hundred million tons of African dust are transported westward over the Atlantic to the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Central America, and South America. Thunderstorms and accompanying warm air can lift dust as high as 4575 meters (15,000 feet) above the African deserts, and then out across the Atlantic.
Aqua [116KB PDF]
The Aqua mission, launched in May 2002, builds on NASA's long history of studying the Earth and its atmosphere from the impressive perspective of space. Amongst the aims are an integrated understanding of the Earth system at present, an improved understanding of the prominent changes the system has undergone in the past, and improved predictions regarding how the system is likely to change in the future.
ASTER [340KB PDF]
The ASTER instrument measures cloud properties, vegetation index, surface mineralogy, soil properties, surface temperature, and surface topography for selected regions of the Earth.
Birth of a Large Iceberg in Pine Island Bay, Antarctica [216KB PDF]
This lithograph shows the break-off of a large tabular iceberg from the Pine Island Glacier in West Antarctica. This event occurred between November 4th and 12th, 2001, and provides powerful evidence of rapid changes underway in this area of Antarctica. The three images were acquired by the vertical-viewing (nadir) camera of the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) instrument aboard NASA’s Terra spacecraft. The dimensions of the iceberg are approximately 42 kilometers by 17 kilometers (26 miles by 11 miles).
CERES [264KB PDF]
CERES measures the balance of solar energy received by the Earth and the energy reflected and emitted back into space. Understanding the energy coming into and going out of the Earth system is critical for assessing whether scientists' models of global climate change are making accurate predictions. This pair of images is the Terra mission's first in an ongoing series of such measurements of our planet's changing climate system.
GRACE - Studying Earth's Gravity Field from Space [1.2MB PDF]
This lithograph displays the most accurate map to date of Earth's long wavelength gravity field and is the first version to be released by NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission. We call these maps gravity anomaly maps because they show us how much Earth's actual gravity field departs from "normal," as defined by a simplified mathematical gravity model that assumes the Earth is perfectly smooth and featureless. The maps reveal that the Earth is a restless, dynamic planet, both at its surface and deep within its interior.
Low Water in Lake Mead [328KB PDF]
About 96% of the water in Lake Mead is from melted snow that falls in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Wyoming. The past two years have brought severe drought to the western states, and Colorado River runoff has been far below normal during this period. The effect is a drop in lake levels that is visible from NASA satellites. One of NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise research focus areas is the global water and energy cycle governing the precipitation, evaporation, storage and runoff of water. The Earth Science Enterprise Applications Program facilitates the practical use of this knowledge by national and regional decision makers for better management of fresh water resources.
MISR [200KB PDF]
MISR measures the variation of surface and cloud properties, and particles in the atmosphere, with cameras pointed in nine simultaneous different viewing directions. MISR monitors monthly, seasonal, and long-term interactions between sunlight and these components of Earth's environment.
MODIS [244KB PDF]
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) measures the atmosphere, land and ocean processes, (including surface temperature of both the land and ocean), ocean color, global vegetation, cloud characteristics, temperature and moisture profiles, and snow cover. MODIS views the entire surface (land, oceans, clouds, aerosols, etc.) of the Earth every one to two days at a "moderate resolution" of one quarter to one kilometer.
MODIS - Europe [2.2MB PDF]
This spectacular Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image of Europe is based on the most detailed truecolor image of the entire Earth to date. Using a collection of satellite-based observations, scientists and visualizers stitched together months of observations of the land surface, oceans, sea ice, and clouds into a seamless, true-color mosaic of every square kilometer of our planet.
MODIS - Japan [2.9MB PDF]
This spectacular Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image of Japan, eastern North and South Korea, northeast China, and southeast Russia is based on the most detailed true-color image of the entire Earth to date. Using a collection of satellite-based observations, scientists and visualizers stitched together months of observations of the land surface, oceans, sea ice, and clouds into a seamless, true-color mosaic of every square kilometer of our planet.
MODIS Monitoring Sea Surface Temperature, Chlorophyll Concentration and Photosynthetic Activity [121KB PDF]
A sensor orbiting the Earth aboard NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites is now collecting the most detailed measurements ever made of the ocean’s surface environment. Like a sophisticated thermometer in space, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) can measure sea surface temperature every day over the entire globe.
MODIS - Rapid Response [3MB PDF]
In mid-July 2002, lightning started a fire in the Klamath Mountains in southwestern Oregon that eventually burned over the state line into California and consumed more than 400,000 acres by late August. The Biscuit fire became one of the largest in the state's history, threatening not only human life and property, but also three nationally designated wild and scenic rivers and habitat for several species of plants and animals already at risk of extinction. Firefighters also had their hands full with other fires across the state, including the Tiller Complex Fire to the northeast.
MOPITT [188KB PDF]
MOPITT is an infrared gas correlation radiometer that is making the first long-term global observations of carbon monoxide and methane as Terra circles the Earth from pole to pole, 14.4 times every day. From these measurements the sources, motions and sinks of CO can be determined.
Terra [268KB PDF]
NASA's commitment to studying the Earth as a global system continued with the launch of the Terra spacecraft in December 1999 representing a key contribution by NASA to the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Terra was the first of several EOS spacecraft that are observing the Earth's continents, oceans and atmosphere. It has five state-of-the-art instruments achieving measurement capability and accuracy never known before.
Urban Growth [4.3MB PDF]
These images show the extent of land developed as urban, commercial and residential areas between 1986 and 2000, and projected development to 2030 in the Baltimore-Washington D.C. Metropolitan area. Past and current urban extent were derived using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) satellite images.
Using Satellites to Track Rift Valley Fever [200KB PDF]
Rift Valley Fever (RVF), at least in the African country of Kenya, has been well known for over 60 years. As early as 1913, a disease fitting the description of RVF was blamed for the loss of sheep in the Rift Valley in kenya. However, it was not until scientists studied an outbreak of the disease in 1931 that a virus was isolated and shown to cause the disease. By using satellites to closely monitor the vegetation in the region affected by increased rainfall, scientists can identify likely habitats for the mosquitoes that carry the RVF virus, and provide advance warning of large-scale outbreaks of the disease.
Brochures
Mission Brochures
Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E) [564KB PDF]
How clouds, water vapor, precipitation, sea ice, soil moisture, and snow cover respond to increasing atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases is still unclear, and they all have the potential to either enhance or suppress global warming. The same can be said for their influence on natural climate fluctuations. The data that AMSR-E provides is being utilized by climate researchers to develop a better understanding of climate change.
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) [5.2MB PDF]
The only instrument flying on the EOS Terra (formerly AM-1) platform that acquires high-resolution images is ASTER. The primary goal of the ASTER mission is to obtain high-resolution image data in 14 channels over targeted areas of the Earth's surface, as well as black-and-white stereo images. With a revisit time between 4 and 16 days, ASTER provides the capability for repeat coverage of changing areas on the Earth's surface.
Aqua Brochure [1.9MB PDF]
Aqua is a satellite mission aimed at improving our understanding of the Earth/atmosphere system, along with changes occurring within it, through the monitoring and analysis of dozens of Earth variables from a space-based platform orbiting the Earth. Aqua is part of the Earth Observing System (EOS), an international Earth-focused satellite program centered at the United States (U.S.) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU), Humidity Sounder for Brazil (HSB) [564KB PDF]
The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), together with the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) and the Humidity Sounder for Brazil (HSB) (Note: The HSB instrument failed after reaching orbit.) on the Aqua mission, represents the most advanced sounding system ever deployed in space. The system is capable of measuring the atmospheric temperature in the troposphere with radiosonde accuracies of 1 K over 1 km-thick layers under both clear and cloudy conditions, while the accuracy of the derived moisture profiles exceed that obtained by radiosondes.
Aura Brochure [10MB PDF]
Aura's four instruments study the atmosphere's chemistry and dynamics, and enable us to investigate questions about ozone trends, air quality changes and their linkage to climate change. Aura's measurements provide accurate data for predictive models and useful information for local and national agency decision support systems. Aura was the third in a series of large Earth observing platforms to be flown by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with international contributions. Aura along with EOS Terra (launched December, 1999) and Aqua (launched May, 2002) provide an unprecedented view of the global Earth system.
CloudSat CALIPSO Brochure [1.3MB PDF]
Informational brochure on NASA's CloudSat and CALIPSO satellites.
EOS Terra Brochure - General Public [195KB PDF]
NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) began a long-term, comprehensive study of the Earth with a series of satellites specially designed to study the complexities of global change, an advanced computer network for distributing scientific data, and international teams of scientists who are studying the data. In 1999, NASA launched the EOS satellite Terra to begin collecting a new 15-year global data record on which to base future scientific investigations about our complex planet.
NASA Earth Observations Serving Society Brochure [14.8MB PDF]
This brochure offers an overview of the NASA Earth Science Applications, which benchmark practical uses of NASA-sponsored observations from Earth observation systems and predictions from Earth science models. NASA implements projects that carry forth this mission through partnerships with public, private, and academic organizations. These partnerships focus on innovative approaches for using Earth science information to provide decision support that can be adapted in applications worldwide.
GRACE Brochure [569MB PDF]
While gravity is much weaker than other basic forces in nature, such as magnetism and electricity, its effects are ubiquitous and dramatic. Gravity controls everything from the motion of the ocean tides to the expansion of the entire Universe. To learn more about the mysteries of gravity, twin satellites named GRACE, short for the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, are being used to make detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field.
ICESat Brochure [2MB PDF]
The primary goal of ICESat is to quantify ice sheet mass balance and understand how changes in the Earth's atmosphere and climate affect the polar ice masses and global sea level. ICESat also measures global distributions of clouds and aerosols for studies of their effects on atmospheric processes and global change, as well as land topography, sea ice, and vegetation cover.
Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere (MOPITT) [504KB PDF]
Life on Earth depends on the atmosphere. It provides oxygen for respiration, transports gases around the globe and protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation. With a human population of over 6 billion, the quality of this life-sustaining envelope is vital to our continued survival. The Canadian Space Agency's Measurements of Pollution In The Troposphere ( MOPITT ) instrument is designed to monitor from space the health of this thin layer of atmosphere, and give an early warning of unexpected changes.
Moderate-Resolution imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) [1.1MB PDF]
The first EOS satellite, called Terra, was launched on December 18, 1999, carrying five remote sensors. The most comprehensive EOS sensor is MODIS, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer. MODIS offers a unique combination of features: it detects a wide spectral range of electromagnetic energy; it takes measurements at three spatial resolutions (levels of detail); it takes measurements all day, every day; and it has a wide field of view.
 Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) [6.9MB PDF]
MISR is flying on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) first Earth Observing System (EOS) satellite—EOS Terra (formerly AM-1)—together with four other instruments designed to study Earth from space. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology built the MISR instrument for NASA. JPL, in collaboration with the MISR science team, built the software to convert raw MISR data into information that Earth science researchers can use.
 Ocean Surface Topography Mission/Jason-2 [4.7MB PDF]
OSTM/Jason-2 advances our understanding of ocean circulation and will improve our ability to forecast climate events and measure global sea-level change. The instruments on board are designed to map ocean surface topography to provide information on ocean wave heights, sea surface topography, tides, and water vapor. OSTM/Jason-2 continues the tasks of the Jason-1 mission.
OCO Brochure [7.7MB PDF]
OCO is a new mission in NASA's ongoing study of the global carbon cycle. OCO will make the first space-based measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) with the precision, resolution, and coverage needed to accurately map the geographic distribution of CO2 sources and sinks. This information will be used to improve our understanding of the processes that control atmospheric concentrations of this potent greenhouse gas and will lead to improved predictions of future climate.
SORCE Brochure [1.4MB PDF]
The SOlar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) is a small free-flying satellite carrying four scientific instruments to measure the solar radiation incident at the top-of-the-Earth’s atmosphere. This mission is one element of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS), which is the major observational and scientific element of the U.S. Global Change Research Program.
The Clouds and the Earth's Radient Energy System (CERES) [1MB PDF]
NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) is part of an international program for studying the Earth from space using a multiple-instrument, multiple-satellite approach. This EOS program is critical for improving our scientific understanding of ongoing natural and human-induced global climate change and providing a sound scientific basis for developing global environmental policies.
Science Writers' Guide To
 Aqua [0.4MB PDF]
The launch of NASA’s Aqua spacecraft continued the Earth Observing System (EOS) series of comprehensive satellites to monitor the Earth from a space-based platform. Aqua was so named because it obtains significant information about water in the Earth system including ocean surface water, humidity, precipitation infiltration, and runoff. Data from six Aqua instruments provide continuous, long-term records of the hydrologic cycle around the world, which are combined with data from other Earth-monitoring satellites launched by NASA and other countries.
 Aura [6.8MB PDF]
NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) Aura satellite is a NASA mission whose purpose is to study the Earth's ozone, air quality and climate. This mission is designed specifically to conduct research on the composition, chemistry and dynamics of the Earth's upper and lower atmosphere employing multiple instruments on a single satellite.
 CALIPSO/CloudSat/GRACE [2.6MB PDF]
This publication is intended to be a one-stop resource for science writers and reporters who want to write about any of these three missions. For each satellite, the guide includes a quick reference sheet, Q&A, basics on the science of each mission, public affairs and scientist contact information, explanations of the satellites and their instruments, Web sites and other resources.
 Landsat [0.4MB PDF]
The flagship EOS satellite, Terra (formerly EOS AM-1), launched in July 1999, is providing key measurements of the physical and radiative properties of clouds; air-land and air-sea exchanges of energy, carbon, and water; trace gases; and volcanoes. Flying in formation with Terra, Landsat 7 is making global high spatial resolution measurements of land surface and surrounding coastal regions.
 OCO [7.9MB PDF]
The Orbiting Carbon Observatory is the latest mission in NASA's ongoing study of the global carbon cycle. It is the first spacecraft dedicated to studying atmospheric carbon dioxide, the most significant human-produced greenhouse gas and the principal human-produced driver of climate change.
 OSTM [2.4MB PDF]
OSTM/Jason-2 advances our understanding of ocean circulation and will improve our ability to forecast climate events and measure global sea-level change. The instruments on board are designed to map ocean surface topography to provide information on ocean wave heights, sea surface topography, tides, and water vapor. OSTM/Jason-2 continues the tasks of the Jason-1 mission.
 SORCE [0.5MB PDF]
SORCE, launched in March 2003, aims to enable solar-terrestrial studies by providing precise daily measurements of the Total Solar Irradiance and the Spectral Solar Irradiance at wavelengths extending from the ultraviolet to the near infrared.
 Terra [0.4MB PDF]
The launch of NASA’s Terra spacecraft in 1999, marked a new era of comprehensive monitoring of the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and continents from a single space-based platform. Data from the five Terra instruments are creating continuous, long-term records of the state of the land, oceans, and atmosphere. Together with data from other satellite systems launched by NASA and other countries, Terra inaugurated a new 15-year data record.
Fact Sheets
A-Train Fact Sheet (March 2003) [268KB PDF]
Over the next five years, NASA's ESE plans to launch four satellite missions that will fly in formation with each other and with the Aqua satellite, which has been in orbit since May 2002. Each individual mission has its own objectives and will improve our understanding of aspects of the Earth's climate. The real advantage of formation flying, however is that the data from the various satellites are synergistic.
Aerosols: More than Meets the Eye (September 2005) FS-2005-9-072-GSFC [3.6MB PDF]
You can’t really see individual aerosol particles with your eyes—but you can see the impact they have all around you. Aerosols are extremely important to life on Earth. Every time you see a cloud form, you are seeing aerosols at work. Without them, cloud formation would be next to impossible in Earth’s atmosphere.
GRACE: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (December 2003) (FS-2002-1-029-GSFC) [292KB PDF]
To learn more about the mysteries of gravity, twin satellites named GRACE—short for the Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment—were launched to make detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field. This experiment could lead to discoveries about gravity and Earth’s natural systems, which could have far-reaching benefits to society and the world's population.
The Balance of Power in the Earth-Sun System (September 2005) FS-2005-9-074-GSFC [7.3MB PDF]
The Sun is the major source of energy for Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, land, and biosphere. Averaged over an entire year, approximately 342 watts of solar energy fall upon every square meter of Earth.
The Importance of Understanding Clouds (September 2005) FS-2005-9-073-GSFC [4.7MB PDF]
One of the most interesting features of Earth, as seen from space, is the ever-changing distribution of clouds. They are as natural as anything we encounter in our daily lives. As they float above us, we hardly give their presence a second thought. And yet, clouds have an enormous influence on Earth’s energy balance, climate, and weather.
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