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WIC Participant and Program
Characteristics 1998
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and
Children (WIC) is administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of
the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). The WIC Program provides a
combination of direct nutritional supplementation, nutrition education and
counseling, and increased access to health care and social service
providers for pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women; infants; and
children up to the age of five years. WIC seeks to improve fetal
development and reduce the incidence of low birthweight, short gestation,
and anemia through intervention during the prenatal period. Infants and
children who are at nutritional or health risk receive food supplements,
nutrition education, and access to health care services to maintain and
improve their health and development.
To receive WIC benefits, an individual must be categorically eligible;
that is, the person must be a pregnant, breastfeeding, or postpartum
woman; an infant up to the age of one year; or a child aged one through
four years. In addition, each applicant must be found to be income
eligible and at nutritional risk. Eligible applicants receive supplemental
food usually in the form of vouchers or checks which allow them to obtain
specific types of food (milk, juice, cereal, for example) from
participating retail grocers.
The WIC Program was established in 1972 by an amendment to the Child
Nutrition Act of 1966. WIC has greatly expanded since its inception, and,
in April 1998, WIC enrolled approximately eight million participants at an
annual cost of about four billion dollars. Since 1988, FNS has produced
biennial reports on current participant and program characteristics in the
WIC Program for general program monitoring as well as for managing the
information needs of the program. FNS uses this regularly updated WIC
program information to estimate budgets, identify needs for research, and
review current and proposed WIC policies and procedures. The biennial
reports include:
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Information on the income and nutritional risk characteristics of
WIC participants.
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Data on WIC program participation for migrant farm worker families.
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Other information on WIC participation that is deemed appropriate by
the Secretary of Agriculture.
This publication is the seventh report in the series of studies on WIC
participants and program characteristics.
The 1998 Study
The 1998 study of WIC program and participant characteristics (PC98),
like PC92, PC94, and PC96, is substantially different from earlier efforts
to collect data on WIC participants. PC98 employs the prototype reporting
system which was developed by FNS for the 1992 study and which routinizes
compilation of participant information from State WIC agencies. Earlier
FNS studies of the WIC Program—in 1984 (PC84), 1988 (PC88), and 1990
(PC90)—were based on nationally representative samples of WIC
participants and programs. PC98, like PC92, PC94, and PC96, contains
information on a near-census of WIC participants in April 1998.
Participant Records
The current system for reporting participant data is based on the
automated transfer of an agreed-upon set of data elements. State WIC
agencies download routinely collected information which is on their
existing automated client and management information systems. State and
local WIC staff use these data to certify applicant eligibility for WIC
benefits and to issue food vouchers and checks. This Minimum Data Set
(MDS), which consists of twenty items, was developed by FNS working with
the Information Committee of the National Association of WIC Directors (NAWD).
For the month of April 1998, each State WIC agency submitted MDS data
on a census of its WIC participants. In April of 1998, there were
eighty-eight State WIC agencies: the fifty States, the District of
Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, and the American Virgin
Islands, along with thirty-three Indian Tribal Organizations (ITOs). All
eighty-eight WIC agencies provided data for PC98.
The State-maintained automated information systems from which PC98 data
are drawn do not always contain complete information on every individual
enrolled in the WIC Program. Unreported PC98 data may be unavailable for a
variety of reasons which may indicate that participants in any of the
not-reported categories may be different from those individuals with data
reported. Assumptions regarding missing data vary by the nature of the
variable and by the category of WIC participant. To account for these
anomalies, a uniform strategy has been adopted for preparing all tables in
this report. Data not reported are included in the calculation of
percentage distributions for each characteristic. While including missing
data in the denominators for all calculations tends to place estimates for
each characteristic at a lower bound, this approach has allowed consistent
presentation of tabulations throughout the report. Further, it assures
that all information needed to calculate upper-bound estimates is readily
available in every table. Caution should be used in comparing results
across groups; missing data must always be considered in gauging
differences between, among, or across groups or categories of WIC
participants.
Summary of State Programs
The 1998 study, like earlier studies, included a survey of State WIC
agencies which obtained information on WIC program characteristics. This
survey was conducted by mail, with telephone follow-up. Data were
collected on State WIC operating policies and procedures for income
determination, food package tailoring, food instrument issuance, and
average monthly food package costs by participant category. All of the
eighty-eight State WIC agencies operating in April 1998 completed
questionnaires. Since 1992, little change has occurred in WIC program
operations and procedures.
Summary of Local Programs
PC98, like PC96, included a mail survey of local WIC agencies. The PC
98 sample is longitudinal, that is, PC98 surveyed the same agencies as did
PC96. For the 1998 survey, the longitudinal sample was supplemented with a
sample of agencies that came into existence after the 1996 sample was
selected. Data for April 1, 1998, were obtained on such topics as
sponsoring agencies, nutrition education practices, breastfeeding
promotion and education, and referral practices. Most (96 percent) sampled
agencies completed their SLPs; PC98 reports information from 460 local WIC
agencies.
The 1998 WIC Program
In 1998, WIC services were delivered in the fifty States, the District
of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, and the American Virgin
Islands as well as by thirty-three Indian Tribal Organizations. These
eighty-eight State WIC agencies operated 2,203 local WIC agencies where
staff delivered WIC services at about nine thousand service sites. The ten
largest States—California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, New
York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas—served more than
half (57 percent) of all WIC participants. In fact, one-third of WIC
participants can be found in three states—California, New York, and
Texas. This proportion has grown steadily since 1992 when one-quarter of
all participants were in these states.
Participant Characteristics in 1998
In April 1998, 8,042,758 women, infants, and children were enrolled in
the WIC Program—a 4 percent increase over WIC enrollment reported in
1996. The rate of growth between 1996 and 1998 was substantially smaller
than the 20 percent growth in enrollment that occurred between 1992 and
1994 and the 12 percent growth that occurred between 1994 and 1996.While
approximately 8 million participants were enrolled in WIC during April
1998, fewer participants—approximately 7.4 million—actually picked up
or cashed their vouchers. Thus, monthly participation figures are about
eight percent less than monthly enrollment figures. A similar pattern was
observed in PC92, PC94 and PC96. Half (51.2 percent) of WIC participants
are children. Infants account for 25.5 percent and women 23.3 percent. The
PC98 and PC96 distributions are similar. However, between 1992 and 1996,
the proportion of children served by WIC increased (from 47.5 percent to
51.4 percent) and the proportion of infants decreased (from 30.1 percent
to 25.7 percent). This shift may reflect increased funding which has
allowed WIC agencies to expand their caseloads and serve lower priority
children. Women were further divided into pregnant (11.1 percent of all
participants), breastfeeding (4.8 percent of all participants), and
postpartum (7.3 percent of all participants). The percentage of
breastfeeding women has risen from 4.0 percent in 1994 to 4.3 percent in
1996 to 4.8 percent in 1998.
Most (83 percent) of the pregnant women participating in WIC are
between the ages of 18 and 34 as are 85 percent of breastfeeding and 84
percent of postpartum women. Only 9 percent of women WIC clients are aged
seventeen or younger. Most (88 percent) infant WIC participants are
certified for WIC benefits during their first three months of life. Child
participation decreases as age increases—36 percent of child
participants are one year of age and only 16 percent are four years of
age. In 1998, more pregnant WIC participants enrolled in the program
during their first than second trimesters, with 46.6 percent in the first
trimester and 37.8 in the second. Only 11.8 enrolled in the third
trimester. These percentages are similar to those reported in 1996.
Between 1992 and 1996, enrollment in the first trimester increased by
approximately 10 percentage points.
Race and Ethnicity
In the 1998 study, as in previous studies, whites made up the largest
percentage of WIC participants (39.2 percent), followed by Hispanics (32.3
percent), blacks (22.9 percent), Asian or Pacific Islanders (3.2 percent),
and American Indian or Alaskan Natives (1.5 percent). Race/ethnicity data
were reported for 99 percent of WIC participants. The ethnic composition
of the WIC program has been changing steadily since 1992; the percentage
of Hispanic WIC enrollees has risen, while percentages of black and white
(non-Hispanic) enrollees has decreased.
Household Size
The mean household size of WIC participants in April 1998 was 3.9.
Average size has remained stable since 1992, through some fluctuations
have occurred within participant categories over time. Overall, as in
1996, information on household size was reported for about 99 percent of
WIC participants.
Income. Among WIC participants reporting some income, the average
annualized income of families/economic units of persons enrolled in the
WIC Program in April 1998 was $12,479 an increase of $1,671 (16 percent)
since 1996. Across participant categories, breastfeeding women reported
the highest average income at $13,607; postpartum women exhibited the
lowest average income at $11,532. These findings replicate PC92, PC94, and
PC96 results. As in 1988, 1990, 1992, 1994, and 1996, black WIC enrollees
displayed the lowest average income—$9,593 for families or economic
units. As they did in previous PC studies, Asian or Pacific Islander
participants had the highest average annualized income at $14,272.
Findings about income must be interpreted with caution given the
proportion of unreported information. For PC98, income cannot be
calculated for 15 percent of WIC enrollees.
Participation in Other Programs
WIC legislation allows income eligibility requirements to be met by
participation in means-tested programs such as the Medicaid, Food Stamp,
and Transitional Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) Programs. In 1998, 57
percent of WIC participants received benefits from at least one other
public assistance program. With regard to participation in each program,
48 percent of WIC clients received Medicaid benefits; 27 percent
participated in the Food Stamp Program; and 17 percent of WIC participants
reported receiving TANF benefits. Only 15 percent participated in all
three programs, receiving Medicaid, food stamp, and AFDC benefits. Such
data were not reported for 10.5 percent of 1998 WIC enrollees. Reported
participation in TANF, food stamps, and Medicaid decreased substantially
between 1996 and 1998. This observed decline among WIC enrollees mirrors
overall trends in the programs since passage of the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996.
These estimates of reported participation in other programs may well
represent a lower bound. At certification, staff in local WIC agencies
provide information on other programs so that some WIC clients apply for
these benefits after they are certified to receive WIC benefits and after
this information on program participation is recorded.
Poverty Status
Compared with the general US population, the WIC population is
distinctly poor, with two-thirds of WIC participants at or below the
poverty line, compared to 13 percent of the general population. More
detailed figures appear in Chapter Four of this report.
Nutritional Risk
For PC98, States could report up to three nutritional risks for each
participant. For women, general obstetrical risks and inadequate or
inappropriate nutrient intake were the predominant risks reported.
Children showed inappropriate or inadequate nutrient intake and
anthropometric risks (low weight for height, for example) as their most
frequently recorded risks. Three-quarters of WIC infants were recorded at
risk due, at least in part, to the WIC-eligibility of their mothers or
because their mothers were at risk during pregnancy. At least one
nutritional risk was reported for 99.5 percent of WIC enrollees in April
1998.
Breastfeeding Rates
Beginning with PC98, States were required to submit data on
breastfeeding initiation and duration for infants aged seven to eleven
months old in April 1998. The PC98 benchmark estimate is based on data
from 63 State WIC agencies, which represent 85 percent of all
seven-to-eleven-month old infants. In these States reporting breastfeeding
data, 42 percent of infants aged seven to eleven months are currently
breastfed or were breastfed at some time.
Food Package Data
For the first time in April 1998, States were required to provide food
prescription data as part of the WIC Minimum Data Set (MDS). Due to the
complexity of analyzing widely varying coding systems among the
eighty-eight State WIC agencies, this report does not contain analyses of
these food package data. An addendum to this report is planned to address
food prescriptions.
Migrant Status
Of particular interest is the participation of migrant farmworkers in
the WIC Program. In April 1998, there were 53,158 migrant WIC participants
identified on State WIC enrollment files. Migrant WIC participants make up
less than 1 percent of the population receiving WIC services. More than
half of these participants were enrolled in the WIC Program in California,
Florida, and Texas. Migrant women enrollees in WIC tend to be older than
the general WIC population; this population also reports lower incomes.
Average income in the non-migrant WIC population is higher than incomes
reported by migrant farmworker WIC enrollees. However, the gap decreased
between 1996 and 1998—non-migrant income was 12 percent higher than
migrant income in 1996 and only 6 percent higher in 1998. For PC98, State
WIC agencies reported information on migrant status for 99 percent of US
WIC participants.
Last modified: 12/04/2008
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