Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)

• Sockeye salmon populations are variable; some are estimated to be healthy and others very low. No overfishing is occurring.
• Of the seven distinct evolutionary significant units of sockeye salmon identified in the Pacific Northwest, one is listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as endangered, and one is listed as threatened. No populations of sockeye salmon in Alaska are listed under the ESA.
• Sockeye salmon is low in sodium, a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, and a very good source of protein, niacin, vitamin B12, and selenium. For more information, see Nutrition Facts. (USDA)
• Almost 100% of the sockeye salmon bought in the U.S. is from healthy stocks harvested by U.S. fisheries, primarily in Alaska.

Sustainability Status

Biomass: Unavailable*
Overfishing: No
Overfished: No
Fishing and habitat: Sockeye salmon is primarily caught with nets, with some hook and line (trolling) as well. These fisheries generally operate in the water column with minimal impact on the bottom or other habitat.
Bycatch: The primary bycatch is other salmon species. Bycatch is minimized by area, time, and gear restrictions or other management actions.
Aquaculture: (Enhancement) There is currently no commercial aquaculture production of sockeye salmon in the U.S. However, while most sockeye salmon production results from the spawning of wild populations, some runs are developed or enhanced through human effort. Although artificial propagation of sockeye salmon is difficult, notable success has been achieved at several hatchery facilities in Alaska. Fish ladders, lake fertilization, and other enhancements have helped with the productivity of wild returns.

*Unlike most groundfish stocks, biomass metrics are not used to describe the status of salmon stocks. Instead, stock status is usually described using measures of spawning escapement, productivity, and recruitment. However, annual estimates of abundance of year classes that will contribute to fisheries are used for management purposes.

Science and Management

NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) has a significant role in salmon harvest, hatchery activities, and the impact of non-fishing factors on salmon habitat as part of its responsibilities under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Salmon fisheries in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) off the coast of Washington, Oregon, and California are regulated through the Pacific Fishery Management Council's (PFMC) Pacific Coast Salmon Plan (1999). All salmon species fall under the jurisdiction of this plan; although, it currently contains fishery management objectives only for Chinook, coho, pink, and any salmon species listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) that is measurably impacted by Council fisheries. There are no directed fisheries for sockeye salmon in federal waters, and sockeye salmon are rarely caught in the fisheries managed by the PFMC.

In Alaska, salmon fisheries in the EEZ are managed through the North Pacific Fishery Management Council's Fishery Management Plan for the Salmon Fisheries in the EEZ off the Coast of Alaska. The FMP currently defers all regulation of the sport and commercial salmon fisheries in the EEZ to the State of Alaska. This provides continuity by giving the State of Alaska management authority for salmon resources in both state and federal waters. Commercial Pacific salmon fisheries in Alaska are under a limited entry system that restricts the number of vessels allowed to participate in various salmon fisheries located throughout the state. The state utilizes a complex system of regulations on gear, time, and area to ensure sustainability of salmon resources. There are bans on salmon fishing with nets in the majority of both East and West areas of the EEZ, and no commercial salmon fishing is authorized within in the West Area of the EEZ.

In 1985, the U.S. and Canada signed the Pacific Salmon Treaty (PST) to foster long-term benefits for salmon and to establish processes for the two countries to cooperate in the management, research, and enhancement of Pacific salmon stocks of mutual concern, as salmon originating in the lakes and streams in one area of one country often spend a significant part of the their lifecycle feeding, growing, and contributing to fisheries in the waters of other jurisdictions. These shared interests and responsibilities for salmon were recognized in the PST, and the Pacific Salmon Commission was formed by the U.S. and Canadian governments to implement the treaty and provide regulatory advice and recommendations to the U.S. and Canadian management agencies that regulate salmon fisheries. In 1999, an amended agreement under the treaty implemented abundance-based management (rather than fisheries based on negotiated catch ceilings), included habitat provisions, created the Transboundary Panel and Committee on Scientific Cooperation, and established the Northern and Southern Restoration and Enhancement funds. Major salmon fisheries that target sockeye salmon returning to the Fraser River are regulated through the auspices of the Pacific Salmon Commission. The Commission takes the conservation of steelhead trout into account while fulfilling its other functions.

Life History and Habitat

Life history, including information on the habitat, growth, feeding, and reproduction of a species, is important because it affects how a fishery is managed. Salmon abundance is related to salmon habitat quality and quantity which, in turn, affects allowable harvest in the commercial, recreational, and subsistence fisheries. Harvest management and habitat management are very closely related.

• Geographic range: Sockeye salmon commonly spawn and rear in freshwaters from the Columbia River and its tributaries north and west to the Kuskokwim River in Alaska. After migrating from the upland habitats, sockeye rear and mature in the oceanic waters of the North Pacific and Arctic. This species ranges south as far as the Klamath River in California and northern Hokkaido in Japan, to as far north as Bathurst Inlet in the Canadian Arctic and the Anadyr River in Siberia.
• Habitat: Sockeye inhabit streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries, and marine environments.
• Life span: Sockeye salmon typically mature at an age of 5 years and return to spawn in their natal freshwater habitat; age 4 and 6 fish are common with fish maturing at 2, 3, 7 or 8 years occasionally. Salmon die within a few weeks after spawning.
• Food: While in fresh water, juvenile sockeye salmon feed mainly upon zooplankton (tiny floating animals), benthic amphipods (small, shrimp-like crustaceans), and insects. In the ocean, sockeye salmon continue to feed upon zooplankton but also prey upon larval and small adult fishes (such as sand lance), and occasionally squid.
• Growth rate: Slow compared to other Pacific salmon species.
• Maximum size: Sockeye salmon reach up to 2.8 feet in length, and the average weight of the fish is about 8 pounds.
• Reaches reproductive maturity: Sockeye salmon typically mature and return to freshwater after 2 or 3 years at sea, but they occasionally stay at sea for 1,4, or 5 years. Mature sockeye salmon that have spent only 1 year in the ocean are almost always males, which are called jacks.
• Reproduction: Most* sockeye salmon are anadromous, meaning they migrate from a marine environment into freshwater streams and rivers or lakes of their birth in order to mate. The female selects the spawning site, digs a nest (redd) with her tail, and deposits eggs in the downstream portion of the redd as one or more males swim beside her and fertilize the eggs. After each spawning act, the female covers the eggs by dislodging gravel at the upstream end of the redd with her tail. A female produces from 2,000 to 4,500 eggs depending upon her size and usually deposits about five batches of eggs. Eggs hatch during the winter, and the young sac-fry, or alevins, remain in the gravel, living off the material stored in their yolk sacs until early spring when they emerge as fry and move into rearing areas. Typically, juveniles spend 1 to 3 years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean in the spring as smolts. In some systems, juveniles migrate to the ocean soon after emerging from the gravel. Like all Pacific salmon, sockeye salmon die within a few weeks after spawning.
  *Some sockeye salmon are non-anadromous and spend their entire lives in freshwater. Non-anadromous Oncorhynchus nerka in the Pacific Northwest are known as "kokanee." Taxonomically, kokanee and sockeye salmon do not differ, and they are occasionally observed on the spawning grounds together. Kokanee reach a smaller maximum size than the anadromous form, rarely exceeding 14 inches long.
• Spawning season: Sockeye salmon typically spawn in the summer or fall.
• Spawning grounds: Most sockeye salmon spawn in or near lakes, where the juveniles stay for 1 to 3 years before migrating to sea.
• Migrations: Sockeye salmon are anadromous fish that migrate from the ocean to spawn in freshwater. Mature sockeye salmon travel thousands of miles from ocean feeding areas to spawn in the same freshwater system where they were born. Maturing sockeye salmon typically return to freshwater systems from the ocean during the summer months, and most populations show little variation in their arrival time on the spawning grounds from year to year.
• Predators: Predators of juveniles include fish (including other salmon) and birds. Predators of adults in the ocean include sharks, lampreys, and marine mammals, and bears and large birds in freshwater.
• Commercial or recreational interest: Both
• Distinguishing characteristics: Sockeye salmon can be distinguished from Chinook, coho, and pink salmon by the lack of large, black spots and from chum salmon by the number and shape of gill rakers on the first gill arch. Sockeye salmon have 28 to 40 long, slender, rough or serrated closely set rakers on the first gill arch, while chum salmon have 19 to 26 short, stout, smooth rakers. Immature and prespawning sockeye salmon are metallic green-blue on the back and top of the head, iridescent silver on the sides, and white or silvery on the belly. Some fine black speckling may occur on the back, but large spots are absent. Juveniles, while in fresh water, have the same general coloration as immature sockeye salmon in the ocean but are less iridescent. Juveniles also have dark, oval parr marks on their sides. These parr marks are short (less than the diameter of the eye) and rarely extend below the lateral line. Upon maturing in freshwater, breeding males develop a humped back and elongated, hooked jaws filled with sharp teeth. Both sexes turn brilliant to dark red on the back and sides, pale to olive-green on the head and upper jaw, and white on the lower jaw.
  

Role in the Ecosystem

Salmon carcasses, as well as their eggs, embryos, alevins, and fry, provide nutrients to stream and lake ecosystems. Carcasses have been shown to enhance salmon growth and survival by contributing significant amounts of nitrogen and phosphorous compounds to streams. Additionally, aquatic and riparian plants uptake nutrients from salmon carcasses.

Additional Information

The abundance of many salmon stocks throughout the Pacific Northwest is significantly below historic levels while abundance of salmon socks in Alaska is currently higher than historic levels (substantially higher than levels observed from 1880 to 1980). Salmon are affected by a wide variety of factors in the ocean and on land, including ocean and climatic conditions, dams, habitat loss, urbanization, agricultural and logging practices, presence of wood in streams, water diversion, and predators (including humans). There are many healthy and harvestable sockeye salmon stocks along the Pacific Coast. However, due to the combination of factors listed above, some Pacific Northwest stocks of salmon have declined to critically low levels, which has resulted in their being listed for protection under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA). Along the Pacific Coast from California to Washington, there are 7 distinct groups of sockeye salmon, known as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). The Snake River ESU was listed as endangered in 1991, and the Ozette Lake ESU was listed as threatened in 1999. Sockeye salmon stocks in Alaska are healthy, and no stocks are listed under the ESA.

Market names: Sockeye, Red, or Blueback salmon
Vernacular names: Redfish, Spring-run salmon, Summer sockeye

Biomass

Biomass refers to the amount of sockeye salmon in the ocean. Biomass estimates are not available for sockeye salmon. Unlike most groundfish stocks, biomass metrics are not used to describe the status of salmon stocks; however, abundance estimates are often utilized for management purposes. Stock status is usually described using measures of spawning escapement, productivity, and recruitment. Information related to the status of stocks can be found among the websites listed at the bottom of this page.

Landings

Landings refer to the amount of catch that is brought to land.

Note: U.S. commercial landings are shown in the graph.

Biomass and Landings

Are landings and biomass related? Landings are dependent on biomass, management measures in the fishery, and fishing effort.

Data sources:
Landings from NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service Annual Commercial Landings Statistics using using "SALMON, SOCKEYE" as Species and "PACIFIC" and "ALASKA" as State

Important Dates

1977 – Pacific Fishery Management Council's (PFMC) first Salmon Fishery Management Plan (FMP) and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to govern salmon season approved
1978 – New PFMC Salmon FMP and EIS completely replace 1977 documents
1979 – North Pacific Fishery Management Council's (NPFMC) Alaska Salmon FMP implemented
1984 – PFMC Salmon FMP comprehensively amended to implement the framework process for annual management
1985 – U.S. and Canada sign the Pacific Coast Salmon Treaty, and the Pacific Salmon Commission is established
1990 – Alaska Salmon FMP revised, deferring management to the State of Alaska
1991 – Snake River ESU listed as endangered
1999 – Ozette Lake ESU listed as threatened
1999 – An agreement under the Pacific Coast Salmon Treaty implements abundance-based management (rather than fisheries based on negotiated catch ceilings), creates the Transboundary Panel and Committee on Scientific Cooperation, includes habitat provisions, and establishes the Northern and Southern Restoration and Enhancement funds

Notes and Links

General Information:
NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Sustainability species identification for Sockeye salmon

NMFS Office of Protected Resources Sockeye salmon information

NMFS Northwest Regional Office Salmon Endangered Species Act Recovery Plans in Progress

NMFS Northwest Regional Office Endangered Species Act Salmon Listings

NMFS Northwest Regional Office Salmon Fishery Management

In 2000, Congress established the Pacific Coastal Salmon Recovery Fund to contribute to the restoration and conservation of salmon species. The fund is overseen by NMFS and carried out by state and tribal governments.

NMFS Office of Protected Resources works to conserve and recover species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) in partnership with NMFS regional offices and science centers, environmental organizations, industry groups, other Federal and state agencies, and the academic community.

Pacific Salmon Commission

Pacific Fishery Management Council Background on salmon

Fishery Management:
Pacific Coast Salmon Plan (1999)

Fishery Management Plan for the Salmon Fisheries in the EEZ off the Coast of Alaska (1990)

Stock Assessments:
NOAA Northwest Fishery Science Center Technical Memorandum: Status review of sockeye salmon from Washington and Oregon (1997)

NOAA Technical Memorandum: Updated Status of Federally Listed ESUs of West Coast Salmon and Steelhead (2005)