Publications

Food & Nutrition Assistance Programs / Program Outcomes

Aiming for Targets, Saving on Arrows: Insights from Two USDA Food Assistance Programs: The article describes four types of targeting decisions that are made in either the design or the administration of a food assistance program. It summarizes recent ERS research that examined benefits targeting (providing greater program benefits to households that have the lowest incomes) and operational targeting (low administrative and food procurement expenses). One study found that WIC cost-containment practices in six States were relatively inexpensive to administer and reduced food costs with few adverse impacts on WIC participants. Another study examined the effects of a reduction in a USDA subsidy for the meals that are generally served to higher income children (Tier 2 meals) in the Child and Adult Care Food Program. The subsidy reduction targeted program benefits more intensively on low-income children, as designed.
6/20/2003 12:01:00 PM
Amber Waves, June 2003: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’ research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
6/20/2003 12:00:00 PM 49.95/year
Amber Waves, September 2004: Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
9/1/2004 9:00:00 AM 49.95/year
America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences: Individual chapters in this book provide different perspectives on the nutrition problems in the United States: what are the economic costs associated with unhealthy eating patterns; how do dietary patterns compare with dietary recommendations; how do national income and prices, advertising, health claims, and trends in eating away from home affect nutrient intake; how much do people know about nutrition and how does nutrition knowledge and attitudes affect intake of fats and cholesterol; how do different government programs and regulations influence food expenditures and consumption; what are some public and private efforts to improve healthy eating; and what are potential impacts of healthier eating on domestic agriculture.
ERSAIB750 484 pp 5/1/1999 77.00
An Economic Model of WIC, the Infant Formula Rebate Program, and the Retail Price of Infant Formula: This report develops an economic model that provides the theoretical framework for the econometric analyses presented in the report’s companion volume, WIC and the Retail Price of Infant Formula (FANRR-39-1). The model examines supermarket retail prices for infant formula in a local market area, and identifies the theoretical effects of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and its infant formula rebate program. Special attention is given to the rebate program’s sole-source procurement system by which a single manufacturer becomes a State’s "contract brand" —the State’s one supplier of formula to WIC infants—in exchange for paying rebates to WIC. When a manufacturer’s brand is designated a State’s contract brand, the model predicts that supermarkets increase that brand’s retail price. The model also predicts that an increase in the ratio of WIC to non-WIC formula-fed infants in a local market results in an increase in the price of the contract brand and, through demand substitution, a relatively small price increase for noncontract brands.
See also: WIC and the Retail Price of Infant Formula.

FANRR39-2 39 pp 1/12/2005 3:00:00 PM 25.50
Assessing the Nutrient Intakes of Vulnerable Subgroups: This study is a comprehensive analysis of the nutrient adequacy of segments of the population at risk of inadequate nutrient intake, excessive intake, or dietary imbalances, based on the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals conducted in 1994-96 and 1998. The segments include adolescent females, older adults, children and adults at risk of overweight, individuals living in food-insufficient households, low-income individuals, and individuals targeted by and participating in food and nutrition assistance programs. The study adds to a growing literature that uses current, improved knowledge of nutrient requirements and recommended nutrient assessment methods to analyze nutrient intakes. The study indicates generally inadequate intakes of key micronutrients, especially magnesium, calcium, folate, and vitamin E; energy intakes less than recommended energy requirements for adults; and consumption of too much food energy from fat and not enough from carbohydrates; and inadequate intakes of fiber. In addition, diet adequacy deteriorates as individuals get older. Children—especially infants and young children-have diets that are more nutritionally adequate than those of adolescents and adults.
ERSCCR11 98 pp 10/12/2005 8:00:00 AM 29.50
Children's Consumption of WIC-Approved Foods: This study compared consumption patterns of WIC children with those of three different comparison groups: eligible nonparticipating children living in non-WIC households, eligible nonparticipating children living in WIC households, and children living in households whose income is too high to be eligible for WIC. The study provides strong evidence that participation in the WIC program increases consumption of at least some types of WIC-approved foods.
FANRR44 40 pp 2/16/2005 12:00:00 PM 25.50
[Archived] Comparing the Emergency Food Assistance Program and the Food Stamp Program: Recipient Characteristics, Market Effects, and Benefit/Cost Ratios - By order only: Finds that the Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP), a commodity-based program, and the coupon-based Food Stamp Program can, for a given level of expenditure, serve more needy households than either program can serve alone.
16 pp 6/1/1994 23.00
Data Development Initiatives for Research on Food Assistance and Nutrition Programs, Phase I: Ten Potential Data Initiatives: This report describes 10 potential data development initiatives, each of which holds promise for improving the quality or reducing the cost of data resources in USDA's three major food assistance programs. The initiatives reflect the research needs of all three of the largest Federal food assistance programs: the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and the National School Lunch Program (NLSP). The initiatives also were chosen to provide information for several types of research, especially the measurement of program impacts and the dynamics of program participation.
01-010 130 pp 1/31/2002 12:00:00 PM 36.00
DatelinERS Newsletter, January 2005: New! The DatelinERS newsletter replaces ERS Information and offers concise summaries of ERS reports and events with links to areas within our website. You can find it in our newsroom at www.ers.usda.gov/news.
1/27/2005 12:00:00 PM
Designs for Measuring How the School Breakfast Program Affects Learning: This report describes a study design permitting a scientifically defensible evaluation of the impact of the School Breakfast Program (SBP) on learning and cognitive development among children. Following presentation of a literature review and conceptual framework of the SBP-learning relationship, four alternative designs for measuring this relationship were proposed and assessed. Of the four, the design based on Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) data (with supplemental analysis of 1988-1994 NHANES III data) was chosen as the report's subject.
01-013 153 pp 3/12/2002 12:00:00 PM 41.00
Dynamics of Poverty and Food Sufficiency: This study examines dynamics in poverty and food insufficiency using newly available longitudinal data from the 1993 panel of the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) and the follow-on Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD). The study uses these data to characterize the incidence and dynamics of poverty and food problems for the entire U.S. population and for different subgroups. It also estimates multivariate, discrete-choice regression models to examine the factors associated with transitions into and out of poverty and food insufficiency, and it analyzes the empirical results in the context of a life-cycle model of income and food consumption. Results indicate that the incidence of food insufficiency in the United States is low—less than 3 percent in 1997. There also appears to be little persistence in food problems; 79 percent of people in households with food problems at the start of the study period were in households without problems 2 years later. The multivariate results indicate that female-headed households face an especially high risk of being food insufficient. Low levels of asset income, an indicator of a household's ability to spread consumption over time, are also associated with food sufficiency problems.
FANRR36 33 pp 9/2/2003 12:00:00 PM 25.50
Effects of EBT Customer Service Waivers on Food Stamp Recipients: Executive Summary: Most State agencies are now using electronic benefits transfer (EBT) systems to issue food stamp benefits. To promote operational efficiency, some States have received waivers of certain rules governing EBT use. An exploratory study was conducted to ascertain the effects of these waivers on food stamp recipients. The results show that two of the waivers—those allowing recipients to select their own personal identification numbers and to receive EBT training by mail rather than in person—cause new food stamp recipients in waiver States to have more difficulties in using the electronic system than new recipients in nonwaiver States. Further, the difficulties are more apparent among the elderly or disabled. However, the problems tend to disappear as new users gain EBT experience. A third waiver, extending time for card replacement via mail, showed mixed benefits for recipients, most of whom prefer to pick up the card at a food stamp office. Perhaps the most important conclusion is that the customer service waivers do not affect recipient satisfaction with the EBT system; the high level of satisfaction that they expressed suggests that most problems with the waivers are either transitory or minor.
The final report is also available, Effects of EBT Customer Service Waivers on Food Stamp Recipients: Final Report, E-FAN-02-007.

ERSFANRR23 20 pp 6/6/2002 12:00:00 PM 23.00
Effects of EBT Customer Service Waivers on Food Stamp Recipients: Final Report: Most State agencies are now using electronic benefits transfer (EBT) systems to issue food stamp benefits. To promote operational efficiency, some States have received waivers of certain rules governing EBT use. An exploratory study was conducted to ascertain the effects of these waivers on food stamp recipients. The results show that two of the waivers—those allowing recipients to select their own personal identification numbers and to receive EBT training by mail rather than in person—cause new food stamp recipients in waiver States to have more difficulties in using the electronic system than new recipients in nonwaiver States. Further, the difficulties are more apparent among the elderly or disabled. However, the problems tend to disappear as new users gain EBT experience. A third waiver, extending time for card replacement via mail, showed mixed benefits for recipients, most of whom prefer to pick up the card at a food stamp office. Perhaps the most important conclusion is that the customer service waivers do not affect recipient satisfaction with the EBT system; the high level of satisfaction that they expressed suggests that most problems with the waivers are either transitory or minor.
The Executive Summary of this report is also available as a printed document, Effects of EBT Customer Service Waivers on Food Stamp Recipients: Executive Summary, Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report Number 23.

02007 177 pp 6/27/2002 12:00:00 PM 44.00
Effects of Food Assistance and Nutrition Programs on Nutrition and Health: Volume 1, Research Design: This is the first of four reports in the "Nutrition and Health Outcome Study," which assesses the effects of USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs on nutrition and health outcomes. This report reviews the research designs available to evaluators for assessing the effect of USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs. The random assignment experiment is the "gold standard" design for such an evaluation. Where random assignment is impossible, quasi-experimental designs are used to infer what would have happened to program participants if the program had not existed. Eight types of quasi-experimental design are identified as having been used in evaluations of food assistance and nutrition programs, although none can guarantee unbiased estimates of program impacts.
FANRR19-1 39 pp 4/25/2002 2:00:00 PM 25.50
Effects of Food Assistance and Nutrition Programs on Nutrition and Health: Volume 3, Literature Review: This report provides a comprehensive review and synthesis of published research on the impact of USDA's domestic food and nutrition assistance programs on participants' nutrition and health outcomes. The outcome measures reviewed include food expenditures, household nutrient availability, dietary intake, other measures of nutrition status, food security, birth outcomes, breastfeeding behaviors, immunization rates, use and cost of health care services, and selected nonhealth outcomes, such as academic achievement and school performance (children) and social isolation (elderly). The report is one of four volumes produced by a larger study that includes Volume 1, Research Design; Volume 2, Data Sources; Volume 3, Literature Review; and Volume 4, Executive Summary of the Literature Review. The review examines the research on 15 USDA food assistance programs but tends to focus on the largest ones for which more research is available: food stamps, school feeding programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Over half of USDA's budget—$41.6 billion in fiscal year 2003—was devoted to food assistance and nutrition programs that provide low-income families and children with access to a healthy diet.
FANRR19-3 330 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 60.00
Effects of Food Assistance and Nutrition Programs on Nutrition and Health: Volume 4, Executive Summary of the Literature Review: This report provides a summary of a comprehensive review and synthesis of published research on the impact of USDA's domestic food and nutrition assistance programs on participants' nutrition and health outcomes. The outcome measures reviewed include food expenditures, household nutrient availability, dietary intake, other measures of nutrition status, food security, birth outcomes, breastfeeding behaviors, immunization rates, use and cost of health care services, and selected nonhealth outcomes, such as academic achievement and school performance (children) and social isolation (elderly). The report is one of four volumes produced by a larger study that includes Volume 1, Research Design; Volume 2, Data Sources; Volume 3, Literature Review; and Volume 4, Executive Summary of the Literature Review. The review examines the research on 15 USDA food assistance and nutrition programs but tends to focus on the largest ones for which more research is available: food stamps, school feeding programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Over half of USDA's budget—$41.6 billion in fiscal year 2003—was devoted to food assistance and nutrition programs that provide low-income families and children with access to a healthy diet.
FANRR19-4 174 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 41.00
Employment Factors Influencing Food Stamp Program Participation: Final Report: This study examines how employment characteristics of low-income households influence Food Stamp Program (FSP) participation. The relationship between employment and FSP participation is of special interest because, although more low-income working families are eligible to participate, many do not. Low-income working households are less likely to participate in the FSP if they work traditional daytime hours, hold multiple jobs, and work more hours, but they are more likely to participate if they frequently change jobs. However, the relationship between employment and FSP participation was stronger in the early 1990s than in the late 1990s, suggesting that barriers to participation among working families decreased during the decade.
03-012 57 pp 11/25/2003 11:00:00 AM 27.00
Establishing a Web-Based Data Collection System for National School Lunch and National School Breakfast Program Data: Technical Report: This report is a followup to an initiative to establish a central website to collect data from States on the National School Lunch and the School Breakfast Programs. A central website could be used by researchers and program administrators to compare and analyze data across State and local areas for participation trends in local school district programs. The report provides an implementation plan for establishing a central website, including potential costs, benefits, and alternatives. The initiative is one of three that have the potential to improve the usefulness and cost-effectiveness of research on Federal food assistance and nutrition programs. The other initiatives are addressed in the reports Linking the Current Population Survey and State Food Stamp Program Administrative Data (E-FAN-04-005-1) and Linking WIC Program Data to Medicaid and Vital Records Data (E-FAN-04-005-2).

EFAN04005-3 54 pp 6/2/2004 9:00:00 AM 27.00
Evaluating the Impact of School Nutrition Programs: Final Report: This study develops estimates of the efficacy of school nutrition programs in improving a broad range of dietary outcomes by comparing the nutritional status of students and their families during the school year with the status when school is out. The study finds evidence that children who have a School Breakfast Program (SBP) available consume a better overall diet, consume a lower percentage of calories from fat, are less likely to have a low intake of magnesium, and are less likely to have low serum levels of vitamin C and folate. For every outcome examined, SBP availability either promotes better outcomes or at the least does not promote worse outcomes. The results of this study suggest that the availability of an SBP has beneficial effects for children. This report describes the study's broad evaluation of the SBP and the National School Lunch Program (NSLP). The study used the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey III (NHANES III)—a nationally representative data set that contains detailed information on food consumption, a complete clinical exam, and a laboratory report for respondents.
EFAN04008 48 pp 7/13/2004 10:00:00 AM 25.50
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: This study investigated the feasibility of linking administrative data from multiple USDA food assistance and nutrition programs. To determine the potential for record linkage, Phase I of the study gathered information in 26 States on the characteristics and content of administrative databases for the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and child nutrition programs. Phase II of the study collected and linked 2000-02 administrative data on FSP and WIC clients in Florida, Iowa, and Kentucky. Phase II estimates multiple program participation in FSP and WIC, describes the relative timing of participation across programs, and examines the individual and household characteristics associated with multiple program participation.
03008 11/26/2004 33.00
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: Volume I, Record Linkage Issues and Results of the Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems: Administrative data from USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs (FANPs) provide statistics on the number and characteristics of program participants. However, policymakers and researchers often want more information than these administrative data provide about participation in multiple programs or the characteristics of families who choose to participate in some, but not all, programs for which they are eligible. This study investigates the feasibility of linking administrative data across FANPs to provide statistics on multiple-program participation. This report presents the results of the first phase of the study. The results are based on the Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems, taken in 26 States from directors of the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and Child Nutrition Programs. The survey collected information about the characteristics and content of FANP information systems. Findings indicate that FSP and WIC statewide information systems vary significantly in the number and types of client identifiers, extent of data verification, and rules for data retention and overwriting. The survey also found that participant data from the child nutrition programs are currently unavailable at the State-level except from a handful of States.
03-008-1 78 pp 6/25/2003 9:00:00 AM 29.50
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: Volume II, Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems—Survey Instruments: Administrative data from USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs (FANPs) provide statistics on the number and characteristics of program participants. However, policymakers and researchers often want more information than these administrative data provide about participation in multiple programs or the characteristics of families who choose to participate in some, but not all, programs for which they are eligible. This study investigates the feasibility of linking administrative data across FANPs to provide statistics on multiple-program participation. The first phase of the study included a Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems, taken in 26 States from directors of the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and Child Nutrition Programs. The survey collected information about the characteristics and content of FANP information systems, including system architecture, participant identifiers, integration with other programs, and research uses of administrative data. This report includes the instruments for the survey.
03-008-2 50 pp 6/25/2003 9:00:00 AM 25.50
Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Executive Summary: The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through the Summer Food Service Program (SFSP), funds meals for children in low-income areas when school is not in session. USDA's Economic Research Service recently sponsored the first comprehensive study of the SFSP in more than a decade. The nationally representative study surveyed State administrators, sponsor staff, and site staff on program operations and on factors that affect participation. The study also examined the nutritional quality of meals served and the extent of plate waste. In fiscal year 2001, more than 4,000 local sponsors provided about 130 million meals at more than 35,000 feeding sites. The number of children served in July (2.1 million) was about 14 percent of the number who received free or reduced-price school meals during the previous school year.
In an effort to help target potential SFSP expansion efforts, ERS has developed the Summer Food Service Program Map Machine. The interactive web machine combines data on 2001 SFSP sponsors and sites, Census 2000 data on small geographic areas, and school census data. Users can create maps that allow them to infer at a glance whether SFSP sites are located in areas of the highest need, and whether some qualified areas have been overlooked. The Map Machine also allows for in-depth analysis of program coverage. See www.ers.usda.gov/data/sfsp.
See also: Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Final Report.

FANRR30 19 pp 5/16/2003 10:00:00 AM 23.00
Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Final Report: The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through the Summer Food Service Program (SFSP), funds meals for children in low-income areas when school is not in session. The first comprehensive study of the SFSP since 1986 found that, in fiscal year 2001, more than 4,000 local sponsors provided about 130 million meals at more than 35,000 feeding sites. The number of children served in July 2001 (2.1 million per day) was about 14 percent of the number who received free or reduced-price school meals each day during the previous school year. On average, SFSP meals provided the levels of key nutrients recommended for school meals. However, breakfasts were slightly lower in food energy than recommended, and lunches were higher in fat. Half the SFSP sponsors were school districts, which operated about half the sites and served about half the meals. Other sponsors included government agencies, private nonprofit organizations, and residential camps. The nationally representative study, which was sponsored by USDA's Economic Research Service, surveyed State administrators, sponsor staff, and site staff on program operations and on factors that affect participation.
See also: Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Executive Summary.

03001 419 pp 3/26/2003 9:00:00 AM 67.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2004 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) funds a portfolio of extramural research, including grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts that are competitively awarded through a tightly run peer review process. The Final Report provides an overview of FANRP's research themes, principles, and activities and describes the objectives of individual past and present research projects.
82 pp 2/10/2005 9:00:00 AM 29.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2005 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) funds a portfolio of extramural research, including grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts that are competitively awarded through a tightly run peer review process. The Final Report provides an overview of FANRP's research themes, principles, activities, and publications and describes the objectives of individual research projects.
AER 46 pp 1/24/2006 10:30:00 AM 29.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 1998 Research Grants: The Economic Research Service Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) offers a Small Grants Program designed to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. ERS created partnerships with five academic institutions and research institutes in administering the program. This report presents a summary of the research findings from the first set of small grants, which were awarded in the summer and fall of 1998.
ERSFANRR10 32 pp 12/1/2000 25.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2001 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2000. The results of these research projects were presented at the 2001 Small Grants Program conference. The projects focus on food insecurity and hunger, nutritional outcomes, and the causes and consequences of food assistance program participation. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and on American Indian reservations.
FANRR37 34 pp 11/19/2003 9:00:00 AM 25.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2002 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2001. The results of these research projects were presented at the October 2002 Small Grants Program conference. The projects focus on food insecurity and hunger, nutritional status and diet quality, Federal food assistance program participation, and the role of private-sector organizations in the provision of food assistance. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and those living on American Indian reservations.
FANRR38 30 pp 11/19/2003 9:00:00 AM 23.00
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2003 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings for the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. This report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2002. The projects focus on food assistance and child well-being, food insecurity and hunger, the dynamics of food assistance program participation, obesity, and the role of community factors in dietary intake and food security. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and on American Indian reservations.
FANRR43 43 pp 12/27/2004 10:00:00 AM 25.50
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2004 Research Grants: This report summarizes findings from Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in the summer and fall of 2003. The results of the research projects were presented at the December 2004 Small Grants Program Conference. The projects focus on the economics of obesity, food insecurity and childhood obesity, fod assistance program participation and household well-being, community influence on food assistance and dietary choices, and welfare reform and food assistance program participation. Several projects focus on specifc populations, such as people living in the rural South and those living on American Indian reservations.
ERSCCR12 51 pp 10/24/2005 9:00:00 AM 27.00
Food Assistance Landscape, March 2003: About half of USDA's budget supports 15 domestic food assistance programs that serve an estimated 1 in 5 Americans at some point during the year. The goals of these programs are to provide needy persons with access to a more nutritious diet, to improve the eating habits of the Nation's children, and to help America's farmers by providing an outlet for the distribution of food purchased under farmer assistance authorities. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs, focusing on diet and nutritional outcomes, food program targeting and delivery, and program dynamics and administration. This report uses data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the food assistance programs through fiscal 2002. It also discusses a recent ERS study on one of the smaller, highly targeted food assistance programs—the Summer Food Service Program.
FANRR28-2 6 pp 2/25/2003 9:00:00 AM 12.00
Food Assistance Landscape, March 2006: One in five Americans participates in at least one of USDA's food and nutrition assistance programs during the year. In fiscal 2005, an estimated 55 percent of USDA's budget supported the programs that provide children and low-income people with access to food, a healthful diet, and nutrition education. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs. The Food Assistance Landscape March 2006 uses preliminary data from USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) to examine trends in the food assistance programs through fiscal 2005 (October 1, 2004, to September 30, 2005). It also discusses a recent ERS study that examined patterns of entry into and exit from the Food Stamp Program.
ERSEIB6-2 6 pp 2/15/2006 10:00:00 AM 12.00
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2003: Domestic food assistance programs account for over half of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) outlays. Each year, about 1 in 5 Americans is served by 1 or more of the 15 food assistance programs aimed at improving the nutrition, well-being, and food security of needy Americans. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs, focusing on the benefits of improved diets and food choices, factors that influence diet and nutrition, and program outcomes. This report uses preliminary data from USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) to examine trends in the food assistance programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2003. It also discusses two recent congressionally mandated studies conducted by ERS: an assessment of WIC cost-containment practices, and an evaluation of the USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program.
FANRR28-3 6 pp 10/8/2003 12.00
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2004: Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs totaled $23.3 billion during the first half of fiscal 2004 (October 1, 2003, to March 31, 2004), an 11-percent increase over the first half of fiscal 2003. If this trend continues during the second half of fiscal 2004, expenditures for the entire fiscal year will surpass the record $41.8 billion spent on food assistance in fiscal 2003 (prior to fiscal 2003, the previous historical record was $38.1 billion set in fiscal 1996). Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for almost 95 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. While each of these major programs expanded during the first half of fiscal 2004, most of the increase in total food assistance expenditures was due to the expansion of the Food Stamp Program.
FANRR28-5 6 pp 10/19/2004 11:15:00 AM 12.00
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2005: USDA expenditures for its 15 food assistance programs totaled $25.9 billion during the first half of fiscal 2005 (October 2004-March 2005), an 11-percent increase over the first half of fiscal 2004. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 95 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. Spending on each of these five programs grew during the first half of fiscal 2005 relative to the first half of fiscal year 2004, but most of the increase was due to the Food Stamp Program. This report uses preliminary data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2005. It also discusses a recent ERS report that presents findings from an evaluation of projects aimed at testing ways to increase Food Stamp Program participation among eligible elderly individuals.

ERSEIB6-1 6 pp 10/27/2005 8:00:00 AM 12.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—A Healthy School Meal Environment: This report examines how schools can foster an environment that encourages healthy food choices by participants in the National School Lunch Program and the School Breakfast Program. Environmental factors that are considered to be important in affecting those choices include (1) the nutritional quality, variety, and acceptability of program meals; (2) meal scheduling; (3) nutrition education; and (4) sales of non-USDA foods.
FANRR-34-5 3 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Certifying Eligibility in the National School Lunch Program: Nutritionally balanced National School Lunch Program (NSLP) meals are available in almost all public and many private schools. Any child at a participating school may purchase a lunch through the NSLP; over half of the 25 million NSLP lunches served on an average school day in 2001 were given to children free or at a reduced price. Current regulations allow children to be certified for free or reduced-priced lunches in two ways—direct certification based on documentation from State or local welfare offices, or certification based on an application from a child's parent or guardian. This report examines whether students who are not eligible for free or reduced-cost meals are receiving meals.
FANRR-34-4 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Childhood Obesity and the Role of USDA: The rapid increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children is one of the most serious public health concerns in the United States today. Although most of USDA's child nutrition programs were established in response to documented problems of underconsumption and undernutrition among the low-income population, they now have the potential to reduce the prevalence of childhood obesity. This brief examines the how USDA food assistance and nutrition programs can be used to help further that goal.
FANRR-34-11 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Competitive Foods: Soft Drinks vs. Milk: "Competitive foods"—those available in schools in addition to USDA-provided school meals—have lower nutritional quality than school meals. This report reviews current information on the impact of competitive foods in school meal programs and presents a case study on competition between milk and soft drinks.
FANRR-34-7 3 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Do Healthy School Meals Cost More?: With child obesity soaring and the juvenile incidence of diabetes and hypertension also on the rise in the United States, there is strong policy interest in the potential of USDA school meals to promote healthy diets and weights. It has been argued, however, that improving the nutritional quality of school meals will raise costs. This report examines whether improving the nutritional quality of meals served by the National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program increases program costs.
FANRR-34-6 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Estimating Eligibility and Participation in WIC: The number of participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) has increased dramatically since the program began in 1974. The increase in the number of participants has been largely the result of increased congressional funding as well as cost-containment measures. USDA's annual estimates of the number of people eligible to participate in the WIC program are used to develop budget requests for WIC. Estimation of eligibility and participation is a complex process, due to data limitations, varying State program eligibility criteria, and alternate definitions of key variables.
FANRR-34-3 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out: The Summer Food Service Program: The Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) is the major Federal resource available to provide children from low-income families with nutritious meals when school is not in session. Small in comparison with the National School Lunch Program, which served 15.5 million children in 2001, the SFSP served 2.1 million children. Growing interest in improving SFSP operations and expanding participation led USDA to commission the first comprehensive examination of the program since 1986. This brief presents findings from the study.
FANRR-34-10 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Importance of Child Nutrition Programs to Agriculture: This research brief estimates the impact of specific USDA child-nutrition programs on production, value added, and jobs on U.S. farms, looking at the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and a combined group of school programs (the National School Lunch, School Breakfast, Special Milk, and Summer Food Service Programs).
FANRR-34-12 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Reimbursement Tiering Improves Targeting but Decreases Participation in the Child and Adult Care Food Program: The Family Child Care Homes Legislative Changes Study found that family child care homes in the Child and Adult Care Food Program serve fewer children but more of the children are from low-income families. Prior to the tiered reimbursement system, which started in 1997, 21 percent of the children served were from low-income families. Post-tiering, that number rose to 45 percent.
FANRR-34-9 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—The USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program Evaluation: Getting kids to eat more fruits and vegetables can be a significant challenge. A recent ERS study found one program was very successful in achieving the difficult objective. Many elementary and secondary students who ate free snacks of fresh and dried fruits and fresh vegetables as part of USDA's Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program (FVPP) said they improved their eating habits and were more willing to try unfamiliar fruits and formerly disliked vegetables as a result of participating in the pilot. Funded for the 2002-03 school year at $6 million by the 2002 Farm Bill, the pilot program also was considered a success by school staff members who ran it. The pilot operated in 107 U.S. elementary and secondary schools—100 schools in 4 States (25 schools each in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Ohio) and 7 schools in the Zuni Indian Tribal Organization (ITO) in New Mexico. The program's intent was to promote fresh fruit and vegetable consumption among schoolchildren as concern spreads among health experts about the increasing number of overweight and obese children. A large majority of participating schools that responded to a survey about the pilot program believe that it would be feasible to continue the pilot if funding were made available and that the funding of about $94 per student was adequate.
The research brief is based on a Report to Congress, Evaluation of the USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program: Report to Congress.

FANRR34-14 2 pp 9/11/2003 12:00:00 PM 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—Tiering Increases CACFP Sponsors' Administrative Tasks: The two-tiered meal reimbursement system instituted in 1997 within the child care homes portion of the Child and Adult Care Food Program added new duties for sponsoring organizations. This report examines how these new duties have affected the sponsoring organizations' administrative tasks.
FANRR-34-8 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Assistance Research Brief—WIC and Breastfeeding Rates: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) promotes breastfeeding as the preferred method for feeding infants. The breastfeeding rates among women participating in WIC, although improving, continue to be significantly lower than the Healthy People 2010 target. Healthy People 2010, established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, is a set of health objectives for the Nation to achieve over the first decade of the new century. It recommends that at least 75 percent of women initiate breastfeeding and at least 50 percent continue breastfeeding for at least 6 months.
FANRR-34-2 2 pp 7/15/2003 8.00
Food Security Is Improving in the United States: This issue paper provides an update of recent trends in food security in the United States and discusses related policy and programmatic factors.
ERSAIB765-7 1 pp 4/26/2001 8.00
Food Stamp Benefits and Childhood Poverty in the 1990s: In 2000, 8.8 million children received food stamps, making the Food Stamp Program a crucial component of the social safety net. Despite its importance, little research has examined the effect of food stamps on children's overall well-being. Using the Current Population Survey from 1989 to 2001, we consider the impact of food stamps on three measures of poverty—the headcount, the poverty gap, and the squared poverty gap. These measures portray the incidence, depth, and severity of poverty. We find that in comparison to the headcount measure, food stamp benefits lead to large reductions in the poverty gap and squared poverty gap measures. We then simulate the effects of several changes in the distribution of food stamps and find that a general across-the-board increase in benefits has little impact on poverty reduction. In contrast, targeted changes can greatly reduce the depth and severity of poverty—increasing benefits to the poor results in a greater reduction in the depth of poverty than expanding participation rates, at a similar cost, among poor households.
FANRR33 24 pp 9/3/2003 9:00:00 AM 23.00
Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of ABAWDs Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report: This report presents the findings of a study of able-bodied adults without dependents (ABAWDs) in South Carolina who left the Food Stamp Program (FSP) between October 1998 and March 2000. Under 1996 welfare reform legislation, ABAWDs are limited to 3 months of food stamp benefits in a 36-month period unless they work or participate in an approved work or training program. Survey data collected 12 months after they left the FSP showed that about 72 percent of ABAWD leavers were either working or living with an employed adult. Of those who were unemployed at the time of the survey, about half had worked in the past year. About half were below the poverty line, and two-thirds appeared, based on income, to still be eligible for food stamps. Forty percent were food insecure and 23 percent food insecure with hunger evident. Outcomes for ABAWDs who left the FSP in counties exempted from the ABAWD work requirements and time limits were similar to outcomes of ABAWDS leaving the program in nonexempt counties.
More findings from the South Carolina study are available online in Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of Nonwelfare Families Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report.

03-002 152 pp 3/6/2003 9:00:00 AM 41.00
Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of Nonwelfare Families Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report: This report presents the results of a study of about 900 nonwelfare families who left the Food Stamp Program (FSP) in South Carolina between October 1998 and March 2000. Nonwelfare families were defined as families who did not receive any benefits under the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program in the 12 months before leaving the FSP. The families were surveyed about 12 months after they left the FSP. The study results show that more than 80 percent of the respondents who were still off of food stamps were either working or living with an employed adult. Employment rates were much higher for Blacks than for Whites. More than 80 percent of the respondents who were working and still off of food stamps were working at least 30 hours per week. Among the unemployed who were still off food stamps, the most common reason for not working was the health condition of the respondent. Many respondents reported an increase in minor hardships since leaving the FSP but a few reported more serious hardships.
More findings from the South Carolina study are available online in Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of ABAWDs Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report.

03-003 161 pp 3/6/2003 9:00:00 AM 41.00
[Archived] FoodReview: Examining the Well-Being of Children, Vol. 24, No. 2: The theme for this issue of FoodReview is ''America's Children.'' Articles in this issue discuss the well-being of America's children, children's diet quality, the problem of overweight children in America, foodborne disease among children, the economics of breastfeeding, and food assistance programs that help children and their families. A special article discusses U.S. consumption of tree nuts. Another special article looks at food availability and affordability in Washington, DC.
ERSFR24-2 10/12/2001 9:00:00 AM
[Archived] FoodReview: Welfare Reform and Food Assistance, Vol. 24, No. 1: Published three times a year by the Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, FoodReview informs public and private decisionmakers of the critical economic issues surrounding domestic and foreign food consumption, food prices, food assistance programs, nutrition, food safety, and the impacts of Federal food regulations and policies.
ERSFR24-1 7/27/2001 9:00:00 AM
Household Food Security in the United States, 2002: Eighty-nine percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year 2002, meaning that they had access, at all times, to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households were food insecure at least some time during that year. The prevalence of food insecurity rose from 10.7 percent in 2001 to 11.1 percent in 2002, and the prevalence of food insecurity with hunger rose from 3.3 percent to 3.5 percent. This report, based on data from the December 2002 food security survey, provides statistics on the food security of U.S. households, as well as on how much they spent for food and the extent to which food-insecure households participated in Federal and community food assistance programs.

FANRR35 58 pp 10/31/2003 9:00:00 AM 27.00
Household Food Security in the United States, 2003: Eighty-nine percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2003, meaning that they had access, at all times, to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households were food insecure at least some time during that year. The prevalence of food insecurity, 11.2 percent of households, was not statistically different from the 11.1 percent observed in 2002. The prevalence of food insecurity with hunger was unchanged at 3.5 percent. This report, based on data from the December 2003 food security survey, provides the most recent statistics on the food security of U.S. households, as well as on how much they spent for food and the extent to which food-insecure households participated in Federal and community food assistance programs.

Questions & Answers: Answers to frequently asked questions about the report.
Research Brief: The report's findings summarized.

FANRR42 69 pp 11/19/2004 9:00:00 AM 27.00
Household Food Security in the United States, 2004: Eighty-eight percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2004, meaning that they had access, at all times, to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households were food insecure at least some time during that year. The prevalence of food insecurity rose from 11.2 percent of households in 2003 to 11.9 percent in 2004 and the prevalence of food insecurity with hunger rose from 3.5 percent to 3.9 percent. This report, based on data from the December 2004 food security survey, provides the most recent statistics on the food security of U.S. households, as well as on how much they spent for food and the extent to which food-insecure households participated in Federal and community food assistance programs. Survey responses indicate that the typical food-secure household in the U.S. spent 31 percent more on food than the typical food-insecure household of the same size and household composition. Just over one-half of all food-insecure households participated in one or more of the three largest Federal food assistance programs during the month prior to the survey. About 20 percent of food-insecure households—3.5 percent of all U.S. households—obtained emergency food from a food pantry at some time during the year.
ERSERR11 65 pp 10/28/2005 8:00:00 AM 27.00
Issues in Food Assistance—Effects of WIC Participation on Children's Food Consumption: This study compared consumption patterns of WIC children with those of three different comparison groups: eligible nonparticipating children living in non-WIC households, eligible nonparticipating children living in WIC households, and children living in households whose income is too high to be eligible for WIC. The study provides strong evidence that participation in the WIC program increases consumption of at least some types of WIC-approved foods.
FANRR26-11 4 pp 2/16/2005 12:00:00 PM 8.00
Issues in Food Assistance—How Do Food Assistance Programs Improve the Well-Being of Low-Income Families?: The costs of USDA's three largest food assistance programs—food stamps, school means and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)—are easier to measure than the benefits of those programs. In 2000, the three programs' direct costs were $28 billion. As shown in this issues brief, the well-being of low-income families who participate in food assistance programs is enhanced by the alleviation of the severity of poverty, an increase in food security, satisfactory nutrient intake, and increases in household food expenditures.
FANRR26-9 4 pp 10/25/2002 12:00:00 PM 8.00
Issues in Food Assistance—The Emergency Food Assistance System: Findings from the Client Survey: Food pantries and emergency kitchens play an important role in feeding America's low-income and needy populations. These organizations are part of the Emergency Food Assistance System (EFAS), a network run largely by private organizations with some Federal support. This issues brief summarizes findings from a survey of EFAS customers. The survey found that, during a typical month in 2001, food pantries served about 12.5 million people, and emergency kitchens served about 1.1 million people. The majority of EFAS households participate in a Federal food assistance program, including two-thirds of food-pantry clients and 45 percent of emergency-kitchen clients. However, a substantial number of EFAS households do not receive food stamps, though they appear to be eligible for them.
FANRR26-10 3 pp 10/31/2003 10:00:00 AM 8.00
Linking WIC Program Data to Medicaid and Vital Records Data: Phase II Report, Data Development Initiatives for Research on Food Assistance and Nutrition Programs—Final Report: This report is a followup to a proposal to create a national database that links State data from the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) with Medicaid and vital records data. The linked information would create new opportunities for Federal and State program administrators, as well as independent researchers, to examine a number of factors related to program participation and dynamics. The report provides an implementation plan for creating a national database, including potential costs, benefits, and alternatives. The initiative is one of three that have the potential to improve the usefulness and cost-effectiveness of research on Federal food assistance and nutrition programs. The other initiatives are addressed in the reports, Linking the Current Population Survey and State Food Stamp Program Administrative Data (E-FAN-04-005-1) and Establishing a Web-Based Data Collection System for National School Lunch and National School Breakfast Program Data (E-FAN-04-005-3).

EFAN04005-2 101 pp 6/2/2004 9:00:00 AM 33.00
Maternal Employment and Children's Nutrition: Volume I, Diet Quality and the Role of the CACFP: Compared with children of nonworking mothers, children of full-time working mothers have lower overall HEI (Healthy Eating Index) scores, lower intake of iron and fiber, and higher intake of soda and fried potatoes, even after taking into account differences in maternal and other family characteristics. Nutritional differences between children of part-time working mothers and children of nonworking mothers were more sensitive to maternal and family characteristics, with no clear pattern of nutritional differences emerging. This study analyzed differences in nutrition outcomes among children whose mothers work full time, part time, and not at all, and the role USDA's Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) plays in meeting the nutrition needs of participating children, especially those whose mothers work.
EFAN04006-1 153 pp 6/8/2004 12:00:00 PM 41.00
Maternal Employment and Children's Nutrition: Volume II, Other Nutrition-Related Outcomes: The higher income of households with working mothers is related to lower participation in USDA's Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and School Breakfast and Food Stamp Programs. In contrast, children of working mothers are more likely to participate in the National School Lunch Program. This study analyzed differences in nutrition and nutrition-related outcomes among children whose mothers work full time, part time, and not at all (homemakers). This report focuses on indirect nutrition-related outcomes, including food program participation, children's eating patterns, household food acquisition and sufficiency, and children's physical activity and risk of overweight. Study results indicate that households with working mothers spend more on food and have higher levels of food sufficiency than households without working mothers. Working mothers, however, participate less in meal planning, shopping, and food preparation. The children of working mothers are more likely to skip morning meals, rely more on away-from-home food sources, spend more time watching TV and videos, and face significantly greater risk of overweight.
EFAN04006-2 72 pp 6/8/2004 12:30:00 PM 27.00
Maternal Employment and Children’s Nutrition: A majority of U.S. women with children are now employed outside the home. This ERS-funded study by Abt Associates Inc. used mid-1990s data to explore the effects of mothers’ work on their children’s nutrition. Findings include the following: Children of full-time working mothers have lower overall HEI (Healthy Eating Index) scores, lower intake of iron and fiber, and higher intake of soda and fried potatoes than children of nonworking mothers (volume I); and the higher income of households with working mothers is related to their children’s lower participation in most of USDA’s food assistance programs, the exception being the National School Lunch Program (volume II).
EFAN04006 6/8/2004 12:30:00 PM 27.00
[Archived] Minimum Wage and Food Prices: An Analysis of Price Pass-Through Effects: This article explores the possibility that because lower income households spend a proportionately larger share of their income on food, the higher income from an increase in the minimum wage may be offset by resulting higher food costs and finds that under normal economic conditions it is unlikely that higher food costs would fully offset the wage gains of minimum wage workers.
EEJS-0109 10/1/2001
Moving Public Assistance Recipients Into the Labor Force, 1996-2000: Moving recipients of public assistance into jobs is a goal of the current system for providing public assistance to low-income households. Using scenario analysis with a computable general equilibrium model, ERS researchers examined some of the labor market impacts of the "welfare-to-work" provisions of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). The results show that, from 1996 to 2000, the influx of public assistance recipients into the labor force put downward wage pressure on low-skill occupations, making wage growth smaller than it would have been without the influx. At the same time, the influx added workers to the labor force, which contributed to economic growth. By expanding the labor force, the influx contributed 1 percentage point of real economic growth in terms of gross domestic product from 1996 through 2000.
FANRR-40 46 pp 5/21/2004 10:00:00 AM 25.50
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: The five summaries in the Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations series highlight key findings of the multi-volume Nutrition and Health Outcomes Study. The summaries examine the nutritional and health status of: Food Stamp Program (FSP) participants; Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) participants; school-age children; and older Americans.
AIB796 2/16/2005 9:00:00 AM 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Body Weight Status: The Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations study examined several measures of body weight status for children and adults using 1988-94 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data. The measures provide a baseline to monitor the weight status of Americans, focusing on the low-income population.
ERSAIB796-3 4 pp 2/16/2005 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Clinic Measures of Iron, Folate, Vitamin B12, Cholesterol, Bone Density, and Lead Poisoning: The Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations study examined several eating behaviors for children and adults using 1988-94 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III) data. This summary focuses on the nutritional biochemistry blood tests and bone density measures that showed differences between income groups. The measures provide a baseline to monitor eating behaviors of Americans, focusing on the low-income population.
ERSAIB796-5 4 pp 2/16/2005 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Healthy Eating Index: The Healthy Eating Index measures how well American diets conform to recommended healthy eating patterns, looking at 10 dietary components. The Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations study examined the Healthy Eating Index using 1988-94 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III) data. The measures provide a baseline to monitor the dietary quality of Americans, focusing on the low-income population.
ERSAIB796-1 4 pp 2/16/2005 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Meal Patterns, Milk and Soft Drink Consumption, and Supplement Use: The Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations study examined several eating behaviors for children and adults using 1988-94 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III) data. The measures provide a baseline to monitor eating behaviors of Americans, focusing on the low-income population.
ERSAIB796-4 4 pp 2/16/2005 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Usual Nutrient Intakes: The Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations study examined longrun average, or "usual" intakes of 10 key nutrients and dietary components: energy intake, vitamin C, iron, zinc, calcium, total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, and fiber. Results were estimated for participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC), Food Stamp Program (FSP) participants, school-age children, and older adults. Because the recommendations for nutrient intake have been under revision, intake distributions are useful for estimating the prevalence of adequate intake under different standards. The study provides a baseline from which to monitor the nutrition and health characteristics of each group over time and to identify priorities for further research.
ERSAIB796-2 4 pp 2/16/2005 8.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Volume I, Food Stamp Program Participants and Nonparticipants: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III), conducted in 1988-94, were used to compare the nutrition and health characteristics of participants and nonparticipants in the Food Stamp Program (FSP). FSP participants were compared with two groups of nonparticipants—those who were income-eligible for the FSP (income at or below 130 percent of poverty) and those with higher incomes (income above 130 percent of poverty). This research was designed to establish a baseline from which to monitor the nutritional and health characteristics of FSP participants and nonparticipants over time.
04014-1 393 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 65.50
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Volume II, WIC Participants and Nonparticipants: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III), conducted in 1988-94, were used to compare the nutrition and health characteristics of participants and nonparticipants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This research was designed to establish a baseline from which to monitor the nutritional and health characteristics of WIC participants and nonparticipants over time. Because of age-based variations in the survey protocols and small samples of pregnant and postpartum women, data were not consistently available among women, infants, and children. Data availability was the richest for children and most limited for pregnant women.
04014-2 193 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 44.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Volume III, School-Age Children: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III), conducted in 1988-94, were used to compare the nutrition and health characteristics of the Nation's school-age children—boys and girls ages 5-18. Three groups of children were compared based on household income: income at or below 130 percent of poverty (lowest income), income between 131 and 185 percent of poverty (low income), and income above 185 percent of poverty (higher income). This research was designed to establish a baseline from which to monitor the nutrition and health characteristics of school-age children over time, particularly those in low-and lowest income groups.
04014-3 254 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 54.00
Nutrition and Health Characteristics of Low-Income Populations: Volume IV, Older Adults: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III), conducted in 1988-94, were used to compare the nutrition and health characteristics of the Nation's older adults—men and women ages 60 years and older. Three groups of older adults were compared based on household income: income at or below 130 percent of poverty (lowest income), income between 131 and 185 percent of poverty (low income), and income above 185 percent of poverty (higher income). This research was designed to establish a baseline from which to monitor the nutrition and health characteristics of older Americans over time, particularly those in low- and lowest income groups.
04014-4 358 pp 12/30/2004 9:00:00 AM 62.00
Persistence and Change in the Food Security of Families With Children, 1997-99: This report uses data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to examine the prevalence of and changes in food security between 1997 and 1999 among individual families with children younger than 13. About half of the families that were food insecure in 1997 became food secure by 1999, with the rest remaining food insecure. Meanwhile, about 7 percent of the families who were food secure in 1997 became food insecure in 1999. Although the food security status for individual families changed substantially, the prevalence of food insecurity was relatively stable: In both years, about 1 family in 10 was food insecure. The report also examines families' characteristics, income, and Food Stamp Program participation.
EFAN04001 30 pp 3/18/2004 10:00:00 AM 23.00
Relationship Between the EITC and Food Stamp Program Participation Among Households With Children: The Federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and the Food Stamp Program (FSP) are the largest means-tested transfer programs for low-income, working parents in the United States. This study examines how these two programs interact, particularly with regard to the impact of the EITC on participation in the FSP during the latter half of the 1990s. Although EITC payments do not reduce the potential size of a household's food stamp allotment under FSP rules, they do add to a household's resources and thus could affect a household's willingness to participate in the FSP. The paper tests this hypothesis with monthly data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation for 1996 through 1999. Although the findings are mixed, they provide evidence of negative impact of EITC on FSP participation.
EFAN04002 54 pp 4/19/2004 27.00
Research Designs for Assessing the USDA's Food Assistance and Nutrition Program's Outcomes-Part I: Evaluation of Ongoing National Programs: This is an ERS Elsewhere product publicizing an article in the journal Nutrition Today. This article summarizes a review of research designs for assessing the affect of USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs on nutrition and health.
EEJS0306 10/17/2003
Sharing the Economic Burden: Who Pays for WIC's Infant Formula?: This feature examines how the WIC program and the associated rebates for infant formula affect the retail price of infant formula.
9/1/2004 9:00:00 AM
State-Level Predictors of Food Insecurity and Hunger Among Households With Children: This report examines interstate variation in household food security. Using hierarchical modeling, we identify several contextual dimensions that appear linked to household food security: the availability and accessibility of Federal nutrition assistance programs, policies affecting economic well-being of low-income families, and States' economic and social characteristics. These dimensions comprise what we refer to as the State food security infrastructure. We find that a strong food security infrastructure particularly benefits families that are economically vulnerable yet have incomes above the poverty line. Almost all of the observed interstate differences in food security can be explained by cross-State differences in demographic and contextual characteristics.
ERSCCR13 60 pp 10/18/2005 11:00:00 AM 27.00
The Consequences of Welfare Reform and Economic Change for the Food Stamp Program--Illustrations from Microsimulation: Final Report: This report summarizes the results of a longitudinal microsimulation model known as MATH STEWARD that was used to explore how state welfare reform and economic changes between 1992 and 1998 might have affected the Food Stamp Program and how an economic recession might affect food stamp outcomes. Slightly over half of the reductions in FSP caseloads and costs between December 1992 and December 1998 were simulated. About one-third of the simulated reductions in caseloads and costs could be attributed to changes in state welfare and child care policies; about two-thirds could be attributed to changes in state unemployment rates. In a future recession similar to the 1990-92 recession, food stamp caseloads could increase about 11 percent and food stamp costs could increase about 13 percent.
ERSEFAN01-003 98 pp 4/26/2001 29.50
The Effect on Dietary Quality of Participation in the Food Stamp and WIC Programs: Participants in the Food Stamp Program have higher intake of meats, added sugars, and total fats, according to a regression analysis. However, food stamp use does not significantly change intake of fruits, vegetables, grains, or dairy products. Participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) have significantly lower intake of added sugars, which may reflect the substitution of WIC-supplied juices and cereals in place of higher sugar soft drinks and cereals. These findings come from a study of low-income Americans using the Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.
ERSFANRR9 20 pp 9/15/2000 23.00
The Food Assistance Landscape, March 2004: USDA's domestic food assistance programs affect the daily lives of millions of people. About 1 in 5 Americans is estimated to participate in at least 1 of 15 food assistance programs at some point during the year. Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs increased 9.4 percent in fiscal year 2003 to $41.6 billion. This exceeded the previous historical record of $38.1 billion that was spent on food assistance in fiscal 1996. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 94 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance, with the expansion of the Food Stamp Program being the cause of most of the total increase in food assistance expenditures between fiscal years 2002 and 2003.
FANRR28-4 6 pp 2/26/2004 10:00:00 AM 12.00
The Food Assistance Landscape, March 2005: Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs totaled $46 billion in fiscal 2004 (October 1, 2003, to September 30, 2004), marking the second consecutive year in which spending exceeded the previous record high. The fiscal 2004 spending level represented a 10-percent increase from the previous fiscal year, the fourth consecutive year in which total food assistance expenditures increased. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 94 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. While each of these major programs expanded during fiscal 2004, most of the increase in total food assistance expenditures between fiscal 2003 and fiscal 2004 was due to the increase in Food Stamp Program expenditures.
FANRR28-6 6 pp 2/16/2005 9:00:00 AM 12.00
The Food Stamp Benefit Formula: Implications for Empirical Research on Food Demand: To discover the Food Stamp Program's effect on food spending, researchers often rely on regression models that require some source of independent variation in food stamp benefits. This article examines three sources of independent variation, which appear promising at first look: (a) variation in household size, (b) variation in deductions from gross income, and (c) receipt of minimum or maximum food stamp benefits. Based on the results, the article raises concern about popular regression approaches to studying the Food Stamp Program.
eejs0209 2/13/2002
The Food Stamp Program and Food Insufficiency: Food stamp participants have higher food insufficiency rates than eligible non-participants, even after controlling for other factors. Given the Food Stamp Program's prominent role in the alleviation of hunger, this is a counterintuitive result. We conjecture that these higher rates are due to adverse selection insofar as households more likely to be food insufficient are also more likely to receive food stamps. We establish a theoretical framework to address this adverse selection. Using a simultaneous equation model with two probits, we show that once one controls for this adverse selection, food stamp recipients have the same probability of food insufficiency as non-recipients.
eejs0202 1/1/2002
The Food Stamp Program in An Era of Welfare Reform: Electronic Benefits and Changing Sources of Cash Income: Data from the first evaluation of a statewide Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT) program are used to investigate the distinct roles played by food stamp benefits and cash income in the household budget of food stamp recipients at different times of the month.The EBT system replaces traditional food stamp coupons and welfare checks with plastic debit cards.
eejs0206 2/2/2002
The Monthly Food Stamp Cycle: Shopping Frequency and Food Intake Decisions in an Endogenous Switching Regression Framework: This article makes two contributions to the study of food demand by U.S. food stamp recipients. First, it employs nationally representative data to describe and measure monthly cycles in food expenditure and food intake. Second, because the food intake cycle is found to depend on the frequency of major grocery trips, the article develops and estimates an econometric model of consumers’ shopping frequency and food intake decisions in two halves of the food stamp month. The results of the model have implications for policies that affect the frequency of grocery shopping by food stamp households, such as delivery of food stamp benefits twice per month rather than once per month.
eejs0205 2/2/2002
The Relationship of Earnings and Income to Food Stamp Participation: A Longitudinal Analysis: Monthly income and earnings of households that are eligible to participate in the Food Stamp Program (FSP), but that do not participate, vary substantially more than income and earnings of participant households. In particular, many nonparticipant households have had a short-term drop in income. Other nonparticipants, however, have had long-term low income and are often very disadvantaged. Although nonparticipation by such households might partly reflect underreporting of participation or income, many households may not participate because the same conditions that limit their incomes, such as low literacy levels or physical or mental disability, also limit their ability to participate in the FSP. Many poor nonparticipants are receiving other benefits, such as Supplemental Security Income or Medicaid, suggesting an avenue by which agencies can reach eligible nonparticipants. This study considers the role that the dynamics of household income plays in determining FSP participation. The two main objectives of the analysis are to (1) determine the extent to which nonparticipation can reasonably be attributed to temporary low income, and (2) assess why some households that appear to have long-term low income do not participate.
03-011 79 pp 11/21/2003 29.50
The WIC Program: Background, Trends, and Issues: The mission of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) is to safeguard the health of low-income women, infants, and children up to age 5 who are at nutrition risk. WIC provides nutritious foods to supplement diets, nutrition education, and referrals to health care and other social services. Administered by USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), the program has grown rapidly since 1972. Almost half of all infants and about one-quarter of all children 1-4 years of age in the United States now participate. WIC accounts for almost 12 percent of total Federal spending on food and nutrition assistance. This report describes the WIC program—how it works, its history, program trends, and the characteristics of the population it serves. It also examines issues related to program outcomes and administration. How the WIC community responds to these issues may have a large impact on future program operations.
FANRR27 44 pp 10/23/2002 12:00:00 PM 25.50
USDA's Healthy Eating Index and Nutrition Information: A comprehensive model is developed to measure the extent that nutrition knowledge and diet-health awareness, among other factors, influence an individual's Healthy Eating Index (HEI), USDA's measure of overall diet quality. This is the first study that rigorously attempts to examine variation in the index across population groups by controlling for personal and household characteristics and nutrition information levels, as well as test for endogeneity of nutrition information. Results indicate that one's level of nutrition information has an important influence on one's HEI and that nutrition information and the HEI are simultaneously determined. Other factors explaining variations in HEI's across individuals are income and education levels, race, ethnicity, and age. Evidence supports the hypothesis that higher education promotes more healthful food choices through better acquisition and use of health information.
ERSTB1866 32 pp 5/12/1998 25.50
Using One-Stops To Promote Access to Work Supports—Lessons from Virginia's Coordinated Economic Relief Centers: Final Report: Policymakers and program administrators have become increasingly concerned about declines in participation in the Food Stamp Program (FSP) and other work supports. As a result, interest has grown in identifying promising strategies for improving low-income families' access to these programs and benefits. In early 2002, the Commonwealth of Virginia implemented a new initiative: To provide the services of many agencies at one-stop career centers, called Coordinated Economic Relief Centers (CERCs). This report describes the results of a study on how the CERCs were implemented and their potential for increasing low-income families' access to the FSP and other work supports and provides operational lessons for other States and communities seeking to implement a similar one-stop approach to service delivery. The results indicate that the CERCs helped some customers get information about where to find services and made obtaining services more convenient. However, resource constraints hampered the CERCs' efforts to operate as envisioned, the level of referrals to food assistance programs was low, and expectations in some communities exceeded what the CERCs could realistically accomplish.
03-010 121 pp 11/21/2003 33.00
WIC and the Nutrient Intake of Children: After controlling for self-selection bias, participation in the WIC program (Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children) has a significant positive effect on children's intakes of iron, folate, and vitamin B-6. Iron is one of five nutrients targeted by the program, the others being protein, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C. Folate and vitamin B-6, along with zinc, were recommended by a 1991 USDA study as nutrients that the program should also target. The data set used, the 1994-96 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals, reflects the dramatic increase during the 1990's in the number of children in the program. ERS AutoFAX summary document # 01805. Contact: victoro@ers.usda.gov.
ERSFANRR5 32 pp 4/1/2000 25.50
WIC and the Retail Price of Infant Formula: Rebates from infant formula manufacturers to State agencies that administer the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) support over one-quarter of all WIC participants. However, concerns have been raised that WIC and its infant formula rebate program may significantly affect the infant formula prices faced by non-WIC consumers. This report presents findings from the most comprehensive national study of infant formula prices at the retail level. For a given set of wholesale prices, WIC and its infant formula rebate program resulted in modest increases in the supermarket price of infant formula, especially in States with a high percentage of WIC formula-fed infants. However, lower priced infant formulas are available to non-WIC consumers in most areas of the country, and the number of these lower priced alternatives is increasing over time.
See also: An Economic Model of WIC, the Infant Formula Rebate Program, and the Retail Price of Infant Formula.

FANRR-1 106 pp 1/12/2005 3:00:00 PM 33.00

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