Food Supply & Water Purification Security

Agroterrorism Backgrounder
Purdue Extension Disaster Education Network, September 2001
This web page provides local law enforcement and community leaders with an overview of agroterrorism, including its likelihood, an evaluation of possible cost risks, and recommendations for countering an attack against our nation's agricultural industry and food supply. Site users can download a Microsoft Word file or a PowerPoint presentation on the topic.

Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness (PDF)
Congressional Research Service, August 13, 2004
This report explores agriculture as a terrorist target, which is increasingly recognized as a national security threat. According to the author, "agroterrorism is a subset of bioterrorism, and is defined as the deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease with the goal of generating fear, causing economic losses, and/or undermining stability."

Agroterrorism: What Is the Threat and What Can be Done About It? (PDF)
RAND, National Defense Research Institute, 2003
With the assumption that relatively little consideration has been given to terrorist threats against agriculture and food industries as a backdrop, this Research Brief from RAND examines key weaknesses inherent in the agricultural sector and the food chain, assesses the capabilities needed to exploit those vulnerabilities, and discusses potential ways to improve agricultural emergency response and management.

Agroterrorism—Why We're Not Ready: A Look at the Role of Law Enforcement (PDF)
National Institute of Justice , December 2006
This Research for Policy publication considers the potential effects of an agroterror-induced introduction of foot-and-mouth disease to the American cattle industry, including the mandatory slaughter of millions of animals and the potential $60 billion impact on the U.S. economy. This report examines reasons why law enforcement is not ready for such an attack and offers guidance for preventing and preparing to respond to an act of agroterrorism.

Amber Waves
Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2003
Amber Waves is a magazine devoted to critical research and analysis on food, farming, natural resources, and rural America. It includes articles on food safety and security. This subscription consolidates Economic Research Service research from three magazines (Agricultural Outlook, Food Review, and Rural America) into an all-inclusive subscription. The Internet edition is free and offers additional articles and data between scheduled issues. To receive updates and issue release information about the Internet version of Amber Waves, sign up for e-mail notification here.

Bacteriological Surveillance of Drinking Water (PDF)
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine, October 1996
This technical guide provides an overview of regulatory requirements and instruction on bacteriological surveillance and evaluation of drinking water quality.

The Biological and Toxin Weapons Threat to the United States (PDF)
National Institute for Public Policy, October 2001
This document describes biological and toxin agents, the means of their weaponization, and who might make such weapons. It also examines U.S. vulnerabilities to biological and toxin weapons attacks and proposes steps to better manage the consequences of such an attack.

Biological Terrorism Targeted at Agriculture: The Threat to U.S. National Security (PDF)
"Viewpoint," The Nonproliferation Review, Fall-Winter 2000
This article discusses how agricultural pathogens can be employed to harm animals and crops, profiles the types of terrorists most likely to commit agroterrorism, and offers recommendations to prevent and mitigate agroterrorist attacks.

Biological Warfare Agents as Threats to Potable Water
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine, November 1999
This report assesses the state of our knowledge of agents as potable water threats and contemplates the consequences of intentional or collateral contamination of potable water supplies by 18 replicating agents and 9 biotoxins known or likely to be weaponized or otherwise used as threats.

Bioterror in the Heartland: Confronting the Specter of Agriterror (PDF)
Barry S. Zellen, December 2004
A training manual seized from Al Qaeda examines methods of agricultural terrorism; in addition, computer records found in Afghanistan suggest that the terror network's interest in bioweapons predated 9/11. This article, which was featured in the Center for Contemporary Conflict's Strategic Insights, discusses the vulnerabilities of the nation's food supply, remedies in progress to address these, and what else is needed to protect the country from agricultural terrorism.

Bioterrorism: A Threat to Agriculture and the Food Supply (PDF)
U.S. General Accounting Office, December 2003
This report analyzes the gaps found in federal controls for protecting agriculture and the food supply. Recommendations call for strengthening import checks for mad cow and foot-and-mouth diseases, enforcing the feed ban, and improving security at the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Plum Island Animal Disease Center in New York.

Countering Agricultural Bioterrorism
The National Academies Press, 2002
Prepared by the National Research Council's Committee on Biological Threats to Agricultural Plants and Animals, this study evaluates the ability of the United States to deter, prevent, detect, thwart, respond to, and recover from an intentional biological attack on the nation's supply of food and fiber. It emphasizes deterrence and prevention and analyzes both the defensive posture before an attack and the capability to respond to an attack.

Countering Terrorism of Drinking Water Supplies (PDF)
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine, 2001
This fact sheet provides an overview of emergency response plan elements and appropriate response actions to counter physical destruction, intentional contamination, or cyber attack of water supply systems.

Covert Biological Weapons Attacks Against Agricultural Targets: Assessing the Impact Against U.S. Agriculture
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, August 2001
This report assesses the potential economic impact that an altercation using biological weapons would have on the U.S. agricultural sector.

Crop Biosecurity: Are We Prepared? (White Paper) (PDF)
American Phytopathological Society, May 2003
Efforts to combat crop bioterrorism have focused more on prevention than on preparation. In an attempt to better balance prevention and preparedness efforts, this white paper offers immediate, near-term, and long-term recommendations for investments in infrastructure and resources that will protect plant health.

Defining Law Enforcement's Role in Protecting American Agriculture from Agroterrorism (PDF)
National Institute of Justice, December 2005
This study examined law enforcement's role in protecting American agriculture from international and domestic terrorists, militant animal rights groups, economic opportunists, and disgruntled employees.

Drinking Water: Experts' Views on How Federal Funding Can Best Be Spent To Improve Security [Testimony] (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, September 2004
This report studies the security-related vulnerabilities affecting drinking water systems; the criteria for determining how federal funds are allocated among drinking water systems to improve their security; and security-enhancing activities that should be supported.

Drinking Water: Experts' Views on How Future Federal Funding Can Best Be Spent to Improve Security (PDF)
U.S. General Accounting Office, December 2003
This report discusses the vulnerabilities of the physical components of water security (e.g., computer systems, treatment chemicals, and source water supplies). Better allocation of security-related federal funds among drinking water utilities and varying distribution methods for these funds are among the recommendations made in this report.

Early Warning Systems for Hazardous Biological Agents in Potable Water
Environmental Health Perspectives, October 2000
This document discusses early warning systems and other management approaches that may increase the chances of preventing human exposure if biological weapons are used in drinking water systems.

Emergency Response Plan Guidance for Wastewater Systems (PDF)
Water Environment Research Foundation, November 2004
This report provides wastewater systems personnel with guidance on developing emergency response plans for natural and terrorist events and provides a reference for the types of information and data that should be included in an emergency response plan.

EPA Needs to Fulfill Its Designated Responsibilities to Ensure Effective BioWatch Program (PDF)
Office of the Inspector General, Environmental Protection Agency, March 2005
This report evaluates the Environmental Protection Agency's role in BioWatch, an early warning system designed to detect the release of biological agents in the air through monitoring and laboratory analysis.

FDA and Bureau of Customs and Border Protection Announce Steps to Streamline Collection of Information on Food Imports
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, May 2003
On May 27, 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) announced that they will streamline the implementation of the "prior notice" requirements of the Bioterrorism Act of 2002 by allowing food importers, in most cases, to provide required information on food imports to both agencies using CBP's existing Automated Commercial System. Beginning no later than December 12, 2003, importers will be required to provide "prior notice" regarding the content of their food imports.

FDA Issues Final Two Proposed Food Safety Regulations
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, May 2003
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has published the final two proposed food safety regulations required by the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 ("The Bioterrorism Act of 2002"), which gave FDA new authority to protect the nation's food supply. Proposed regulations on the establishment and maintenance of records would apply to almost all foreign and domestic food sources and recipients of food destined for U.S. consumption. Other proposed regulations on administrative detention implement FDA's new, self-executing authority to detain any article of food that may pose a threat of serious adverse health consequences or death.

Federal Oversight of Food Safety: High-Risk Designation Can Bring Needed Attention to Fragmented System (PDF)
Government Accountability Office, February 8, 2007
Each year about 76 million people contract a food-borne illness in the United States . Of these cases, approximately 325,000 require hospitalization and roughly 5,000 result in death. While recent E. coli outbreaks highlight the risks posed by accidental contamination, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 heightened awareness that the national food supply could be vulnerable to deliberate contamination. This testimony before congressional subcommittees addresses the fragmented nature of federal oversight of food safety, the importance of raising the priority and visibility of the need to transform federal oversight of food safety, and the need to address this oversight as a 21st century challenge.

Federal Oversight of Food Safety: FDA's Food Protection Plan Proposes Positive First Steps, but Capacity to Carry Them Out Is Critical (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, January 29, 2008
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for ensuring the safety of roughly 80 percent of the U.S. food supply, including $417 billion worth of domestic food and $49 billion in imported food annually. Changing demographics and consumption patterns underscore the urgency for effective food safety oversight. In response to these challenges, in November 2007, FDA and others released plans that discuss this oversight. FDA's Food Protection Plan sets a framework for food safety oversight. In addition, FDA's Science Board released FDA Science and Mission at Risk , which concluded that FDA does not have the capacity to ensure the safety of the nation's food supply.

The Food and Drug Administration Confronts Homeland and National Security: Report on a Workshop of the RAND Center for Domestic and International Health Security (PDF)
RAND, Center for Domestic and International Health Security, 2003
This paper summarizes proceedings from a workshop that discussed the limited availability of vaccines to protect both military and civilian populations against biological agents (e.g., anthrax and smallpox) and the adequacy (or inadequacy) with which related industries could respond and analyzed how the policies and procedures of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration relate to the availability of drugs and biologics.

Food Safety: Experiences of Seven Countries in Consolidating Their Food Safety Systems (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, February 2005
This report analyzes the safety and quality of the U.S. food supply and compares it to the consolidated food safety systems of Canada, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.

Food Safety and Security: What Consumers Need to Know
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), November 17, 2003
This guide encourages consumers to look out for signs of intentional food contamination and to report cases of suspected food tampering to the local police or through the USDA's Meat and Poultry Hotline.

FSIS Safety and Security Guidelines for the Transportation and Distribution of Meat Poultry, and Egg Products (PDF)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service, August 2003
As part of its continuing effort to help protect America's food supply from intentional and unintentional contamination, this report from USDA is designed to help facilities and shippers that handle meat, poultry, and egg products strengthen their food safety and security plans. The guidelines provide recommendations to ensure the security of food products through all phases of distribution.

Guidance for Industry: Importers and Filers: Food Security Preventive Measures Guidance
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, October 2007
This guidance aids operators of food importing establishments, storage warehouses, and filers, identifying preventive measures to minimize risk of malicious, criminal, or terrorist actions targeting food. The guidance focuses sequentially on each segment of the food delivery system, and recommends that both management and staff participate in the development and review of enhanced preventive measures.

Guidance for Industry: Retail Food Stores and Food Service Establishments: Food Security Preventive Measures Guidance
Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, December 2003 (updated October 2007)
This guidance identifies the kinds of preventive measures that operators of retail food stores and food service establishments may take to minimize the risk that food under their control will be subject to tampering or other malicious, criminal, or terrorist actions.

Hitting America's Soft Underbelly: The Potential Threat of Deliberate Biological Attacks Against the U.S. Agricultural and Food Industry (PDF)
RAND, National Defense Research Institute, 2004
This study assesses how vulnerable the agricultural sector and the food chain are to a deliberate act of biological terrorism, explores possible outcomes of a successful attack, and outlines the agricultural industry's importance to the U.S. economy.

HHS Creates Food Security Research Program, Increases Import Exams More Than Five Times To Protect Nation's Food Supply
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, July 23, 2003
This news release announces another step in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services comprehensive approach to enhancing food security—the allocation of $5 million to support a new research program that develops technologies and strategies to prevent and minimize potential threats to the safety and security of the nation's food supply.

Homeland Security Centers of Excellence: Partnering with the Nation's Universities
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, January 2005
Through the Homeland Security Centers of Excellence program, the Department of Homeland Security is investing in university-based partnerships to develop centers of multidisciplinary research that will analyze important fields of inquiry and develop, debate, and share best practices. The centers bring together the nation's best experts and focus its most talented researchers on various topics, including explosives, cyberterrorism, the behavioral aspects of terrorism, and agricultural, chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological threats.

Homeland Security: Management and Coordination Problems Increase the Vulnerability of U.S. Agriculture to Foreign Pests and Disease (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, May 2006
In March 2003, more than 1,800 agriculture specialists in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) became Customs and Border Protection (CBP) employees in the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, while USDA retained responsibility for agricultural quarantine inspection (AQI) activities such as setting inspection policy, providing training, and collecting user fees. CBP and APHIS have also taken steps to better enable agriculture specialists to target shipments and passengers for inspections, and have established a process to assess how CBP agriculture specialists are implementing AQI policy.

Homeland Security: Much Is Being Done to Protect Agriculture From a Terrorist Attack, But Important Challenges Remain (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, March 2005
U.S. agriculture generates more than $1 trillion per year in economic activity and provides an abundant food supply for Americans and others. Since September 11, concerns have surfaced about the vulnerability of U.S. agriculture to agroterrorism. Several agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Homeland Security, Health and Human Services, and Defense, play a role in protecting the nation against agroterrorism. In this report, the Government Accountability Office examines the federal agencies' roles and responsibilities to protect against agroterrorism, the steps that the agencies have taken to manage the risks of agroterrorism, and the challenges that remain.

Homeland Security Strategy (PDF)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 2004
The Environmental Protection Agency's Homeland Security Strategy guides the agency's homeland security efforts, describing its goals, initiatives, and key activities for protecting the nation from the consequences of terrorist attacks.

Messages in the Dust: What Are the Lessons of the Environmental Health Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11? (PDF)
National Environmental Health Association, September 2003
This report describes what environmental professionals did in response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 and explores what they might have done differently.

Model Emergency Support Function for Production Agriculture, Animal and Animal Industry (PDF)
National Emergency Management Agency, September 2002
This model offers guidelines for states developing a plan to respond to agroterrorism and includes information for states that already have plans in place.

The National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility: Issues for Congress (PDF)
Congressional Research Service, Updated November 15, 2007
The agricultural and food infrastructure of the United States is susceptible to terrorist attack using biological pathogens. Homeland Security Presidential Directive 9 directs the Secretaries of Agriculture and Homeland Security to develop “a plan to provide safe, secure, and state-of-the-art agriculture biocontainment laboratories that research and develop diagnostic capabilities for foreign animal and zoonotic diseases.” The Department of Homeland Security has announced that, to meet these obligations, it will establish a National Bio- and Agro-Defense Facility. This report outlines current progress towards establishing this facility, presents current and projected funding levels and timelines, and describes policy issues such as agency coordination, possession of viruses, community safety concerns, and construction timelines.

The Office of Science and Technology Policy Blue Ribbon Panel on the Threat of Biological Terrorism Directed Against Livestock (PDF)
RAND Corporation, April 2004
The Office of Science and Technology, in conjunction with the RAND Corporation, convened a panel in 2003 to organize a future research and development agenda for combating biological acts of agro-terrorism directed against U.S. livestock and related produce. This report contains the papers submitted for the conference and provides an overview of the findings and recommendations of the forum.

Overview of Agricultural Biosecurity
Center for Infectious Disease Research & Policy, January 2003
This paper discusses the biosecurity threat faced by the United States' agricultural resources. It includes information on the agricultural biosecurity threat, potential perpetrators, and potential crop pathogens.

Progress Report to Secretary Tommy G. Thompson: Ensuring the Safety and Security of the Nation's Food Supply
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, July 23, 2003
This progress report outlines the Food and Drug Administration's 10-Point Program for ensuring the safety and security of the food supply.

Protecting America's Meat, Poultry and Egg Products: A Report to the Secretary on the Food Security Initiatives of the Food Safety and Inspection Service (PDF)
Food Safety and Inspection Service, Office of Food Security and Emergency Preparedness, January 2003
This booklet details ongoing efforts to improve food safety—for example, improving surveillance systems for identifying food-borne illnesses and outbreaks more quickly, ensuring that risk-reduction strategies are more science based, and conducting public education programs.

Protecting Sources of Drinking Water: Selected Case Studies in Watershed Management (PDF)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 1999
This report profiles 17 drinking water utilities that are incorporating watershed management and protection as an integral part of their business of providing safe drinking water to their customers.

Protection of Chemical and Water Infrastructure: Federal Requirements, Actions of Selected Facilities, and Remaining Challenges (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, March 2005
This report discusses the federal requirements for the security of the chemical and water sectors, both of which are defined as critical infrastructure systems and assets by the USA PATRIOT Act.

Responding to the Threat of Agroterrorism: Specific Recommendations for the U.S. Department of Agriculture
Executive Session on Domestic Preparedness, October 2000
This report studies the potential health, economic, and social consequences of a terrorist attack against agricultural targets and makes recommendations to counter the threat of such an attack.

A Review of the EPA Water Security Research and Technical Support Action Plan: Parts I and II
Water Science Technology Board, National Academies Press, 2004
This report examines a draft plan, prepared by the Environmental Protection Agency, that identifies critical security issues for drinking water and wastewater and outlines related research and technical support needs. It also recommends increased attention to interagency coordination and encourages additional consideration of current restrictions on the dissemination of secure information.

Risk Assessment for Food Terrorism and Other Food Safety Concerns
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, October 7, 2003
This assessment addresses a broad range of hazards available to terrorists intending to sabotage food, as well as hazards that are accidentally introduced into food. It follows the generally accepted framework for risk assessments endorsed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and other authoritative bodies. The framework divides risk assessment into four components: hazard identification, hazard characterization (or dose-response assessment), exposure assessment, and risk characterization.

Securing Wastewater Facilities: Utilities Have Made Important Upgrades but Further Improvements to Key System Components May Be Limited by Costs and Other Constraints (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, May 1, 2006
Although wastewater facilities provide essential services, they may also have characteristics that terrorists could exploit to impair or damage the treatment process or surrounding infrastructure. GAO was asked to determine what federal statutory authorities govern the protection of wastewater treatment plants from terrorist attack, what steps facilities have taken since the 9/11 attacks to ensure that potential vulnerabilities are addressed, and what steps the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Homeland Security have taken to assist these facilities' efforts.

State FOIA Laws: A Guide To Protecting Sensitive Water Security Information (PDF)
Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies, 2002
This guide helps public utilities evaluate the relevance of state public disclosure laws to their particular situations, providing strategies to help protect sensitive information that could be used by domestic or international terrorists to disrupt or destroy critical infrastructures.

Targets for Terrorists: Chemical Facilities
Council on Foreign Relations, December 11, 2006
This resource from the Environmental Protection Agency identifies 15,000 facilities that produce, use, or store potentially dangerous quantities of hazardous chemicals.

Terrorism and Security Issues Facing the Water Infrastructure Sector (PDF)
C. Copeland and B. Cody, Congressional Research Service, January 5, 2005
Damage to the nation's water supply and water quality infrastructure could disrupt the delivery of vital services, threaten public health and the environment, and possibly cause loss of life. Currently, no federal standards or established best practices to govern readiness, response, or recovery efforts exist within the water infrastructure sector. This report reviews water infrastructure, describing security-related actions taken by the government and private sector since 9/11, as well as additional policy issues and responses.

Terrorist Threats to Food: Guidance for Establishing and Strengthening Prevention and Response Systems (PDF)
World Health Organization, 2002
The malicious contamination of food for terrorist purposes is a real and current threat. This document provides guidance for integrating policies that address deliberate acts of food sabotage into existing prevention and response programs. It also supports the strengthening of programs that underlie food production, processing, and preparation to respond to food terrorism.

TSA Canine Teams Screen U.S. Mail for Explosives—Pilot Program to Expand to Airports Across the Country
Transportation Security Administration, May 29, 2003
With the goal to increase the volume of mail carried on passenger aircraft to the same or greater levels transported prior to September 11, 2001, TSA launched a joint pilot project last November with the U.S. Postal Service, several airlines, and local law enforcement officials. This test program uses explosive detection canines to screen mail and could be expanded to all major airports by the end of the year as a result of this pilot to get mail weighing 16 ounces or more back on aircraft.

Wastewater Facilities: Experts' Views on How Federal Funds Should Be Spent to Improve Security (PDF)
U.S. Government Accountability Office, January 2005
This report discusses the views of nationally recognized experts on key issues concerning wastewater security, including the potential vulnerabilities of wastewater systems, activities that most warrant federal support to mitigate the risk of terrorism, and criteria for allocating and distributing federal funds.