U. S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
January 2001
Draft Risk Assessment on the Public Health Impact of
Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Raw Molluscan Shellfish
Table of Contents
VIII. References
- Abbott, S. L., C. Powers, C. A. Kaysner, Y. Takeda, M. Ishibashi, S. W. Joseph,
and J. M. Janda. 1989. Emergence of a restricted bioserovar of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus as the predominant cause of Vibrio-associated gastroenteritis on the
West Coast of the United States and Mexico. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:2891-2893.
- Aiso, K., and K. Fujiwara. 1963. Feeding tests of the pathogenic halophilic bacteria.
Ann. Res. Inst. Food Microbiol. Chiba Univ. 15:34-38.
- Akeda, Y., K. Nagayama, K. Yamamoto, and T. Honda. 1997. Invasive phenotype of
Vibrio parahaemolyticus. J. Infect. Dis. 176:822-824.
- Amako, K., S. Shimodori, T. Imoto, S. Miake, and A. Umeda. 1987. Effects of chitin
and its soluble derivatives on survival of Vibrio cholerae O1 at low temperature. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 53:603-605.
- Anderson, D. W., R. C. Lindrooth, B. C. Murray, and J. L. Teague. 1996. Cost
restrictions on Gulf oyster harvesting for control of Vibrio vulnificus-caused disease.
(Draft for comments). Louisiana Oyster Industry Convention.
- Angulo, F., and M. Evans. 1999. Vibrio parahaemolyticus epidemiological data.
Personal communication.
- Angulo, F., P. M. Griffin, and R. V. Tauxe. 1998. Oyster harvesting in Galveston Bay,
Texas. Personal communication.
- Anonymous. 1985. Control of the gastrointestinal system, p. 636-641. In J. B. West
(ed.), Best and Taylor's Physiological Basis of Medical Paractice, 11th ed. Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore.
- Anonymous. 1999. Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Japan 1996-1998, IASR Infectious Agents
Surveillance Report. 20 (7):1-2.
- Baffone, W., A. Pianetti, F. Bruscolini, E. Barbieri, and B. Citterio. 2000.
Occurrence and expression of virulence-related properties of Vibrio species isolated
from widely consumed seafood products. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 54:9-18.
- Barker, W. H. 1974. Vibrio parahaemolyticus outbreaks in the United States., p. 47-52.
In T. Fujino, G. Sakaguchi, R. Sakazaki, and Y. Takeda. (eds), International Symposium
on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Saikon Publishing Company, Tokyo.
- Barker, W. H., and E. J. Gangarosa. 1974. Food poisoning due to Vibrio
parahaemolyticus. Ann. Rev. Med. 25:75-81.
- Barker, W. H., P. A. Mackowiak, M. Fishbein, G. K. Morris, J. A. D'Alfonso, G. H.
Hauser, and O. Felsenfeld. 1974. Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis outbreak in
Covington, Louisiana, in August 1972. Am. J. Epidemiol. 100:316-323.
- Baross, J. A., J. Liston, and R. Y. Morita. 1978. Incidence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
bacteriophages and other Vibrio bacteriophages in marine samples. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 36:492-499.
- Bates, T. C., T. Tolker-Nielsen, S. Molin, and J. D. Oliver. 2000. The viable but
nonculturable state in Vibrio parahaemolyticus . Abstracts of the 100th General Meeting
of the American Society for Microbiology. Abstract No. I-87:400.
- Bean, N. H., E. K. Maloney, M. E. Potter, P. Korazemo, B. Ray, J. P. Taylor, S.
Seigler, and J. Snowden. 1998. Crayfish: a newly recognized vehicle for Vibrio
infections. Epidemiol. Infect. 121:269-273.
- Beuchat, L. R. 1974. Combined effects of water activity, solute, and temperature on
growth of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Appl. Microbiol. 27:1075-1080.
- Bonner, J. R., A. S. Coker, C. R. Berryman, and H. M. Pollock. 1983. Spectrum of
vibrio infections in a Gulf Coast community. Ann. Intern. Med. 99:464-469.
- Buchanan, R. L., R. C. Whiting, and W. C. Damert. 1997. When is simple good
enough: A comparison of the Gompertz, Baranyi, and three phase linear models for
fitting bacterial growth curves. Food Microbiol. 14:313-326.
- Calia, F. M., and D. E. Johnson. 1975. Bacteremia in suckling rabbits after oral
challenge with Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect. Immun. 11:1222-1225.
- CDC 1999. Outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection associated with eating raw
oysters and clams harvested from Long Island Sound - Connecticut, New Jersey and
New York, 1998. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 48:48-51.
- CDC 1998. Outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections associated with eating raw
oysters-Pacific Northwest, 1997. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 47:457-462.
- Chan, K. Y., M. L. Woo, L. Y. Lam, and G. L. French. 1989. Vibrio
parahaemolyticus and other halophilic vibrios associated with seafood in Hong Kong. J.
Appl. Bacteriol. 66:57-64.
- Colwell, R. R., P. R. Brayton, D. S. Grimes, D. B. Roszak, S. A. Huq, and L. M.
Palmer. 1985. Viable but non-culturable Vibrio cholerae and related pathogens in the
environment: implications for release of genetically engineered microorganisms.
Bio/Tech. 3:817-820.
- Cook, D. W. 1999. Effect of heat and freezing treatment on Vibrio parahaemolyticus
O3:K6. Unpublished data.
- Cook, D. W. 1994. Effect of time and temperature on multiplication of Vibrio vulnificus
in postharvest Gulf coast shellstock oysters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:3483-3484.
- Cook, D. W. 1997. Refrigeration of oyster shellstock: conditions which minimize the
outgrowth of Vibrio vulnificus. J. Food Protect. 60:349-352.
- Cook, D. W. 1997. Survey of oysters at first dealer level to assess the effect of the
Interstate Shellfish Conference's Interim Control Plan to reduce the numbers of Vibrio
vulnificus in oysters intended for raw consumption. (Draft research report).
- Cook, D. W., and A. D. Ruple. 1992. Cold storage and mild heat treatment as
processing aids to reduce the numbers of Vibrio vulnificus in raw oysters. J. Food
Protect. 55:985-989.
- Cook, D. W., and A. D. Ruple. 1989. Indicator bacteria and Vibrionaceae
multiplication in post-harvest shellstock oysters. J. Food Protect. 52:343-349.
- Covert, D., and M. Woodburne. 1972. Relationships of temperature and sodium
chloride concentration to the survival of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in broth and fish
homogenate. Appl. Microbiol. 23:321-325.
- Dadisman, T. A., Jr., R. Nelson, J. R. Molenda, and H. J. Garber. 1972. Vibrio
parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis in Maryland. I. Clinical and epidemiologic aspects.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 96:414-418.
- Dai, J. H., Y. S. Lee, and H. C. Hong. 1992. Effects of iron limitation on production of
a siderophore, outer membrane proteins, and hemolysin and on hydrophobicity, cell
adherence, and lethality for mice of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect. Immun. 60:2952-2956.
- Daniels, N. A., L. MacKinnon, R. Bishop, S. Altekruse, B. Ray, R.M. Hammond, S.
Thompson, S. Wilson, N. H. Bean, P. M. Griffin, and L. Slutsker. 2000. Vibrio
parahaemolyticus infections in the United States, 1973-1998. J. Infect. Dis. 181:1661-1666.
- Davis, J. W., and R. K. Sizemore. 1982. Incidence of Vibrio species associated with
blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) collected from Galveston Bay, Texas. Appl Environ.
Microbiol. 43:1092-1097.
- Degner, R. L. 1998. Letter to S. Chirtel FDA/CFSAN on 5 Year Menu Census 1982-1987.
- DePaola, A. 1999. Oyster cooldown rate. Unpublished data.
- DePaola, A., L. H. Hopkins, J. T. Peeler, B. Wentz, and R. M. McPhearson. 1990.
Incidence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in U.S. coastal waters and oysters. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 56:2299-2302.
- DePaola, A., C. A. Kaysner, J. C. Bowers, and D. W. Cook. 2000. Environmental
investigations of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oysters following outbreaks in
Washington, Texas and New York, 1997, 1998. Unpublished data (submitted for
publication).
- DePaola, A., L. H. Hopkins, and R. M. McPhearson. 1988. Evaluation of four
methods for enumeration of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
54:617-618.
- Entis, P., and P. Boleszczuk. 1983. Overnight enumeration of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
in seafood by hydrophobic grid membrane filtration. J. Food Protect. 46:783-786.
- Eyles, M. J., and G. R. Davey. 1984. Microbiology of commercial depuration of the
Sydney rock oyster, Crassostrea commercialis. J. Food Protect. 47:703-706.
- FDA. 1999. Public health impact of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in molluscan shellfish.
Federal Register Notice. 64:24664-24666.
- FDA. 2000. Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in retail shell oysters - a
national survey, June 1998-July 1999.
- Fisher, W. S., and A. R. DiNuzzo. 1991. Agglutination of bacteria and erythrocytes by
serum from six species of marine molluscs. J. Invert. Pathol. 57:380-394.
- Fleiss, J. L. 1973. A survey of probability theory, Chapter 1 in Statistical Methods for
Rates and Proportions. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
- Frischer, M. E., J. M. Thurmond, and J. H. Paul. 1990. Natural plasmid
transformation in a high-frequency-of- transformation marine Vibrio strain. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 56:3439-3444.
- Fujino, T., Y. Okuno, D. Nakada, A. Aoyoma, K. Fukai, T. Mukai, and T. Ueho.
1953. On the bacteriological examination of shirasu food poisoning. Med. J. Osaka
Univ. 4:299-304.
- Garay, E., A. Arnau, and C. Amaro. 1985. Incidence of Vibrio cholerae and related
vibrios in a coastal lagoon and seawater influenced by lake discharges along an annual
cycle. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50:426-430.
- Genthner, F. J., A. K. Volety, L. M. Oliver, and W. S. Fisher. 1999. Factors
influencing in vitro killing of bacteria by hemocytes of the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea
virginica). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:3015-3020.
- Gooch, J. A., A. DePaola, C. A. Kaysner, and D. L. Marshall. 1999. Postharvest
growth and survival of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oysters stored at 26°C and 3°C.
Abstracts of the 99th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology,
Abstract # P52.:521.
- Greenberg, E. P., M. Duboise, and B. Palhof. 1982. The survival of marine vibrios in
Mercenaria mercenaria, the hardshell clam. J. Food Safety. 4:113-123.
- Greenberg, E. P., and M. Duboise. 1981. Persistence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and
Vibrio harveyi in hardshell clams. Abstracts of the 81st General Meeting of the
American Society for Microbiology, Abstract # Q93.:216.
- Hally, R. J., R. A. Rubin, H. S. Fraimow, and M. L. Hoffman-Terry. 1995. Fatal
Vibrio parahaemolyticus septicemia in a patient with cirrhosis: a case report and review
of the literature. Dig. Dis. Sci. 40:1257-1260.
- Hariharan, H., J. S. Giles, S. B. Heaney, G. Arsenault, N. Mcnair, and J. Rainnie.
1995. Bacteriological studies on mussels and oysters from six river systems in Prince
Edward Island, Canada. J. of Shellfish Research. 14:527-532.
- Herwig, R. P., and D.P. Cheney. 2000. I. Influence of environmental parameters on the
levels of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the Pacific oyster (Crassotrea gigas). Submitted to
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Unpublished draft report: 1-39.
- Hlady, W. G. 1997. Vibrio infections associated with raw oyster consumption in
Florida, 1981-1994. J. Food Protect. 60:353-357.
- Hlady, W. G., and K. C. Klontz. 1996. The epidemiology of Vibrio infections in
Florida, 1981-1993. J. Infect. Dis. 173:1176-1183.
- Hoashi, K., K. Ogata, H. Taniguchi, H. Yamashita, K. Tsuji, Y. Mizuguchi, and N.
Ohtomo. 1990. Pathogenesis of Vibrio parahaemolyticus: Intraperitoneal and
orogastric challenge experiments in mice. Microbiol. Immunol. 34:355-366.
- Honda, T., K. Goshima, Y. Takeda, Y. Sugino, and T. Miwatani. 1976.
Demonstration of the cardiotoxicity of the thermostable direct hemolysin (lethal toxin)
produced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect. Immun. 13:163-171.
- Honda, T., M. Shimizu, Y. Takeda, and T. Miwatani. 1976. Isolation of a factor
causing morphological changes of Chinese hamster ovary cells from the culture filtrate
of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect. Immun. 14:1028-1033.
- Ichige, A., S. Matsutani, K. Oishi, and S. Mizushima. 1989. Establishment of gene
transfer systems for and construction of the genetic map of a marine Vibrio strain. J.
Bacteriol. 171:1825-1834.
- Iida, T., K.-S. Park, O. Suthienkul, J. Kozawa, Y. Yamaichi, K. Yamamoto, and T.
Honda. 1998. Close proximity of the tdh, trh and ure genes on the chromosome of
Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Microbiology. 144:2517-2523.
- ISSC & FDA (ed.). 1997 National Shellfish Sanitation Program Guide for the Control of
Molluscan Shellfish., Washington, D.C.
- Jackson, H. 1974. Temperature relationships of Vibrio parahaemolyticus., p. 139-145.
In T. Fujino, G. Sakaguchi, R. Sakazaki, and Y. Takeda. (eds), International Symposium
on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Saikon Publishing Company, Tokyo.
- Johnson, H. C., and J. Liston. 1973. Sensitivity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus to cold in
oysters, fish fillets and crabmeat. J. Food Sci. 38:437-441.
- Johnson, W. G., Jr., A. C. Salinger, and W. C. King. 1973. Survival of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in oyster shellstock at two different storage temperatures. Appl.
Microbiol. 26:122-123.
- Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO)
Expert Consultation 1999. Risk assessment of microbiological hazards in foods.
- Joseph, S. W., R. R. Colwell, and J. B. Kaper. 1983. Vibrio parahaemolyticus and
related halophilic vibrios. CRC Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 10:77-124.
- Kaneko, T., and R. R. Colwell. 1978. The annual cycle of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in
Chesapeake bay. Microbial Ecology. 4:135-155.
- Kasai, G. J. 1971. Studies on the pathogenicity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Southeast
Asian J. Trop. Med. Publ. Health. 2:169-173.
- Kaysner, C. A. 1999. Harvest Module of the V. parahaemolyticus Risk Assessment, p.
56-87. Presentation at NACMCF May 26 meeting.
- Kaysner, C. A., C. Abeyta, R. F. Stott, M. H. Krane, and M. M. Wekell. 1990.
Enumeration of Vibrio species including V. cholerae from samples of an oyster growing
area, Grays Harbor, Washington. J. Food Protect. 53:300-302.
- Kaysner, C. A., C. Abeyta, R. F., Jr., Stott, J. L. Lilja, and M. M. Wekell. 1990.
Incidence of urea-hydrolyzing Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Willapa Bay, Washington.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:904-907.
- Kaysner, C. A., M. L. Tamplin, M. M. Wekell, R. F. Stott, and K. G. Colburn.
1989. Survival of Vibrio vulnificus in shellstock and shucked oysters (Crassostrea gigas
and Crassostrea virginica) and effects of isolation medium on recovery. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 55:3072-3079.
- Kaysner, C. A., and S. D. Weagant. 1982. The incidence and seasonal distribution of
Yersinia enterocolitica and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in a Puget Sound commercial
oyster bed. FDA-SARAP Report. No. 104-79:171-220.
- Kelly, M. T. 1999. Personal communication regarding pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
- Kelly, M. T., and E. M. D. Stroh. 1988. Occurrence of Vibrionaceae in natural and
cultivated oyster populations in the Pacific Northwest. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 9:1-5.
- Kelly, M. T., and E. M. D. Stroh. 1988. Temporal relationship of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in patients and the environment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:1754-1756.
- Kennedy, M. 2000. Incidence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus illnesses associated with
consumption of raw oysters. Personal communication.
- Kiiyukia, C., K. Venkateswaran, I. M. Navarro, H. Nakano, H. Kawakami, and H.
Hashimoto. 1989. Seasonal distribution of Vibrio parahaemolyticus serotypes along the
oyster beds in Hiroshima coast. J. Fac. Appl. Biol. Sci. 28:49-61.
- Klontz, K. C. 1997. Estimated number of persons at increased risk for Vibrio vulnificus
septicemia. (November 21, memorandum to Office of Seafood/CFSAN/FDA).
- Klontz, K. C. 1990. Fatalities associated with Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio
cholerae non-O1 infections in Florida (1981-1988). So. Med. J. 83:500-502.
- Kothary, M. H., D. H. Burr, B. D. Tall, D. E. Hanes, and M. D. Miliotis. 2000.
Thermostable direct hemolysin, thermostable-related hemolysin, and urease are not
required for pathogenicity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in animal models., p. 68.
Abstracts of the 100th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology.
- Kothary, M. H., B. D. Tall, J. F. LaPeyre, S. J. Shinaishin, D. B. Shah, and M.
Faisal. 1997. Perkinsus marinus serine protease prolongs survival of Vibrio vulnificus in
Eastern oyster hemocytes in vitro. Abstracts of the 97th General Meeting of the
American Society for Microbiology. Abstract No. B-135:51.
- La Peyre, J. F., and A. K. Volety. 1999. Modulation of Eastern oyster hemocyte
activities by Perkinsus marinus extracellular proteins. Abstract of the National
Shellfisheries Association Annual Meeting. J. Shellfish Research. 18:322.
- Lawrence, D. N., P. A. Blake, J. C. Yashuk, J. G. Wells, W. B. Creech, and J. H.
Hughes. 1979. Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis outbreaks aboard two cruise
ships. Am. J. Epidemiol. 109:71-80.
- Levine, M. M., R. E. Black, M. L. Clements, D. R. Nalin, L. Cisneros, and R. A.
Finkelstein. 1981. Volunteer studies in development of vaccines against cholera and
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli: a review., p. 443-459. In T. Holme, J. Holmgren, M.
H. Merson, and R. Möllby (eds), Acute Enteric Infections in Children: New Prospects
for Treatment and Prevention. Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam.
- Levine, W. C., P. M. Griffin, and G. C. V. W. Group. 1993. Vibrio infections on the
Gulf Coast: results of first year of regional surveillance. J. Infect. Dis. 167:479-483.
- Levy, A. S., and S. B. Fein. 1999. Trends in food safety cognitions and practices, 1993-1998.
American Dietetic Association Annual Meeting., Atlanta, GA.
- Lowry, P. W., L. M. McFarland, B. H. Peltier, N. C. Roberts, H. B. Bradford, J. L.
Herndon, D. F. Stroup, J. B. Mathison, P. A. Blake, and R. A. Gunn. 1989. Vibrio
gastroenteritis in Louisiana: A prospective study among attendees of a scientific
congress in New Orleans. J. Infect. Dis. 160:978-984.
- Matsumoto, C., A. Chowdhury, J. Okuda, M. Nishibuchi, M. Ishibashi, M.
Iwanaga, J. Albert, P. Garg, T. Ramamurthy, V. Vuddhakul, H.-C. Wong, Y. B.
Kim, and A. DePaola. 1999. Isolation and analysis of Vibrio parahaemolyticus strains
responsible for a pandemic spread to seven Asian countries and the United States. 35th
U.S. Japan Cholera and other Bacterial Infections Joint Panel Meeting, Baltimore, MD.:p25-30.
- McCarthy, S. A., and F. M. Khambaty. 1994. International dissemination of epidemic
Vibrio cholerae by cargo ship ballast and other nonpotable waters. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 60:2597-2601.
- Mead, P. S., L. Slutsker, V. Dietz, L. F. McCaig, J. S. Bresee, C. Shapiro, P. M.
Griffin, and R. V. Tauxe. 1999. Food-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerging Infectious Diseases. 5:607-625.
- Miles, D. W., T. Ross, J. Olley, and T. A. McKeekin. 1997. Development and
evaluation of a predictive model for the effect of temperature and water activity on the
growth rate of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 38:133-142.
- Miyamoto, Y., T. Kato, Y. Obara, S. Akiyama, K. Takizawa, and S. Yamai. 1969. In
vitro hemolytic characteristic of Vibrio parahaemolyticus: its close correlation with
human pathogenicity. J. Bacteriol. 100:1147-1149.
- Morris, J. G., Jr., G. E. Losonsky, J. A. Johnson, C. O. Tacket, J. P. Nataro, P.
Panigrahi, and M. M. Levine. 1995. Clinical and immunologic characteristics of
Vibrio cholerae O139 Bengal infection in North American volunteers. J. Infect. Dis.
171:903-908.
- Morris, J. G., Jr., T. Takeda, B. D. Tall, G. A. Losonsky, S. K. Bhattacharya, B. D.
Forrest, B. A. Kay, and M. Nishibuchi. 1990. Experimental Non-O Group 1 Vibrio
cholerae gastroenteritis in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 85:697-705.
- Motes, M. L., and A. DePaola. 1996. Offshore suspension relaying to reduce levels of
Vibrio vulnificus in oysters (Crassostrea virginica). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:3875-3877.
- Murphree, R. L., and M. L. Tamplin. 1991. Uptake and retention of Vibrio cholerae
O1 in the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3656-3660.
- Nair, G. B., M. Abraham, and R. Natarajan. 1980. Distribution of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in finfish harvested from Porto Novo (S. India) environs: a seasonal
study. Can. J. Microbiol. 26:1264-1269.
- National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods 1992.
Microbiological criteria for raw molluscan shellfish. J. Food Protect. 55:463-480.
- National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods 1998.
Principles of risk assessment for illness caused by foodborne biological agents. J. Food
Protect. 61:1071-1074.
- National Marine Fisheries Service 1990-1998. Fisheries of the United States - 1998.
(www.nmfs.noaa.gov).
- Nishibuchi, M. 1999. Vibrio parahaemolyticus virulence. Personal communication.
- Nishibuchi, M., R. J. Seidler, D. M. Rollins, and S. W. Joseph. 1983. Vibrio factors
cause rapid fluid accumulation in suckling mice. Infect. Immun. 40:1083-1091.
- Nolan, C. M., J. Ballard, C. A. Kaysner, J. L. Lilja, L. P. Williams, and F. C.
Tenover. 1984. Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis. An outbreak associated with
raw oysters in the Pacific Northwest. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2:119-128.
- Ogawa, H., H. Tokunou, T. Kishimoto, S. Fukuda, K. Umemura, and M. Takata.
1989. Ecology of V. parahaemolyticus in Hiroshima Bay. J. Vet. Assoc. of Hiroshima
Prefecture:47-57.
- Okuda, J., M. Ishibashi, E. Hayakawa, T. Nishino, Y. Takeda, A. K.
Mukhopadhyay, S. Garg, S. K. Bhattacharya, G. B. Nair, and M. Nishibuchi. 1997.
Emergence of a unique O3:K6 clone of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Calcutta, India, and
isolation of strains from the same clonal group from Southeast Asian travelers arriving
in Japan. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:3150-3155.
- Oliver, J. D. 1995. The viable but non-culturable state in the human pathogen Vibrio
vulnificus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 133:203-208.
- Ordás, M. C., B. Novoa, and A. Figueras. 1998. Effect of cultured Perkinsus
atlanticus supernatants on the mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and carpet-shell clam
(Ruditapes decussatus) defense mechanisms., p. 244. Proceed. of the Third Intern.
Symp. On Aquatic Animal Health.
- Osawa, R., and S. Yamai. 1996. Production of thermostable direct hemolysin by Vibrio
parahaemolyticus enhanced by conjugated bile acids. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:3023-3025.
- Richards, G. P. 1988. Microbial purification of shellfish: A review of depuration and
relaying. J. Food Protect. 51:218-251.
- Russell, R. G., B. D. Tall, and J. G. Morris, Jr. 1992. Non-O1 Vibrio cholerae
intestinal pathology and invasion in the removable intestinal tie adult rabbit diarrhea
model. Infect. Immun. 60:435-442.
- Sakazaki, R., K. Tamura, T. Kato, Y. Obara, S. Yamai, and K. Hobo. 1968. Studies
on the enteropathogenic, facultatively halophilic bacteria, Vibrio parahaemolyticus. III.
Enteropathogenicity. Japan. J. Med. Sci. Biol. 21:325-331.
- Sanyal, S. C., and P. C. Sen. 1974. Human volunteer study on the pathogenicity of
Vibrio parahaemolyticus., p. 227-230. In T. Fujino, G. Sakaguchi, R. Sakazaki, and Y.
Takeda. (eds), International Symposium on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Saikon Publishing
Company, Tokyo.
- Sanyal, S. C., J. Sil, and R. Sakazaki. 1973. Laboratory infection by Vibrio
parahaemolyticus. J. Med. Microbiol. 6:121-122.
- Sarkar, B. L., G. B. Nair, A. K. Banerjee, and S. C. Pal. 1985. Seasonal distribution
of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in freshwater environs and in association with freshwater
fishes in Calcutta. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49:132-136.
- Seyama, I., H. Irisawa, T. Honda, Y. Takeda, and T. Miwatani. 1977. Effect of
hemolysin produced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus on membrane conductance and
mechanical tension of rabbit myocardium. Jap. J. Physiol. 27:43-56.
- Shiaris, M. P., A. C. Rex, G. W. Pettibone, K. Keay, P. McManus, M. A. Rex, J.
Ebersole, and E. Gallagher. 1987. Distribution of indicator bacteria and Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in sewage-polluted intertidal sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:1756-1761.
- Singleton, F. L., R. W. Attwell, M. S. Jangi, and R. R. Colwell. 1982. Influence of
salinity and organic nutrient concentration on survival and growth of Vibrio cholerae in
aquatic microcosms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 43:1080-1085.
- Son, N. T., and G. H. Fleet. 1980. Behavior of pathogenic bacteria in the oyster,
Crassostrea commercialis, during depuration, re-laying, and storage. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 40:994-1002.
- Sprong, R. C., M. F. Hulstein, and R. Van der Meer. 1999. High intake of milk fat
inhibits intestinal colonization of Listeria but not of Salmonella in rats. J. Nutr.
129:1382-1389.
- Sujatha, C. H., S. M. Nair, and J. Chacko. 1996. Tributyltin oxide induced
physiological and biochemical changes in a tropical estuarine clam. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 56:303-310.
- Takikawa, I. 1958. Studies on pathogenic halophilic bacteria. Yokohama Med. Bull. 9:313-322.
- Tall, B. D., J. F. LaPeyre, J. W. Bier, M. D. Miliotis, D. E. Hanes, M. H. Kothary,
D. B. Shah, and M. Faisal. 1999. Perkinsus marinus extracellular protease modulates
survival of Vibrio vulnificus in Eastern oyster (Crassotrea virginica) hemocytes. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 65:4261-4263.
- Tamura, N., S. Kobayashi, H. Hashimoto, and S.-I. Hirose. 1993. Reactive arthritis
induced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus. J. Rheumatol. 20:1062-1063.
- TAS International Diet Research System 1995. USDA Nutrient Database. Data from
1989/90; 1990/91; 1991/92.
- Tauxe, R. V. 2000. Estimates of disease incidence. Personal communication -
Comments on draft FDA risk assessment of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in raw molluscan
shellfish.
- Tepedino, A. A. 1982. Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Long Island oysters. J. Food Protect.
45:150-151.
- Therien, N. 1998. Information relating to V. parahaemolyticus monitoring of oysters
and illness cases. Personal communication.
- Thieren, N. 1999. Washington State vibriosis cases. Symposium on Molluscan Shellfish
Sanitation, Tacoma, WA.
- Thompson, C. A., C. Vanderzant, and S. M. Ray. 1976. Serological and hemolytic
characteristics of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from marine sources. J. Food Sci. 41:204-205.
- Twedt, R. M., J. T. Peeler, and P. L. Spaulding. 1980. Effective ileal loop dose of
Kanagawa-positive Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 40:1012-1016.
- United States Department of Agriculture 1989-1992. Continuing Survey of Food
Intake by Individuals.
- United States Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug
Administration 1995. National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations:
Part 1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC.
- Venkateswaran, K., C. Kiiyukia, K. Nakanishi, H. Nakano, O. Matsuda, and H.
Hashimoto. 1990. The role of sinking particles in the overwintering process of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus in a marine environment. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 73:159-166.
- Volety, A. K., F. J. Genthner, W. S. Fisher, S. A. McCarthy, and K. Wiles. 1999.
Differential effects of oyster (Crassotrea virginica) defenses on clinical and
environmental isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Abstract of the National
Shellfisheries Association Annual Meeting J. Shellfish Research. 18:326.
- Watkins, W. D. 2000. Pacific Northwest oyster harvest times. Personal communication.
- Watkins, W. D., C. D. Thomas, and V.J. Cabelli. 1976. Membrane filter procedure for
enumeration of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 32:679-684.
- Watkins, W. D., and V. J. Cabelli. 1985. Effect of fecal pollution on Vibrio
parahaemolyticus densities in an estuarine environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
49:1307-1313.
- Weinstein, J. E. 1995. Seasonal responses of the mixed-function oxygenase system in
the American oyster, Crassotrea virginica (Gmelin 1791), to urban-derived polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Endocrinol. 112:299-307.
- Wendt, P. H., R. F. VanDolah, M. Y. Bobo, T. D. Mathews, and M. V. Levisen.
1996. Wood preservative leachates from docks in an estuarine environment. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 31:24-37.
- Wong, H.-C., P. Y. Peng, J. M. Han, C. Y. Chang, and S. L. Lan. 1998. Effect of
mild acid treatment on the survival, enteropathogenicity, and protein production in
Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect. Immun. 66:3066-3071.
- Wong, H.-C., S.-H. Liu, L.-W. Ku, I.-Y. Lee, T.-K. Wang, Y.-S. Lee, C.-L. Lee, L.-P. Kuo, and D. Y.-C. Shih.
2000. Characterization of Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates obtained from foodborne illness outbreaks during
1992 through 1995 in Taiwan. J. Food Protect. 63:900-906.
- Xu, H.-S., N. Roberts, F. L. Singleton, R. W. Attwell, D. J. Grimes, and R. R.
Colwell. 1982. Survival and viability of nonculturable Escherichia coli and Vibrio
cholerae in the estuarine and marine environment. Microbiol. Ecol. 8:313-323.
- Zhu, B. C. R., J.-Y. Lo, Y.-T. Li, S.-C. Li, J. M. Jaynes, O. S. Gildemeister, R. A. Laine, and C.-Y. Ou.
1992. Thermostable, salt tolerant, wide pH range novel chitobiase from Vibrio parahaemolyticus: isolation,
characterization, molecular cloning, and expression. J. Biochem. 112:163-167.
National Food Safety Initiative |
Draft Risk Assessment: Table of Contents
Foods Home |
FDA Home |
Search/Subject Index
|
Disclaimers & Privacy Policy
Hypertext updated by bap/kwg/dms 2001-JAN-30