skip
navigation  |
800-411-3222 (Español)
Cattle Production: Considerations for Pasture-Based Beef and Dairy Producers |
| By Lee Rinehart NCAT Agriculture Specialist Published 2006 ATTRA Publication #IP305 |
The
printable PDF version of the entire document is available
at: http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/cattleprod.pdf 24 pages — 634K Download Acrobat Reader |
Abstract
Market demand is rapidly increasing for sustainably-raised beef and dairy products. Pasture or grass-based livestock production is inherently sustainable as this production system relies on biodiversity and ecological complexity to maintain production without the use of costly inputs. Cattle producers are beginning to recognize that intensively-managed rotational grazing (also called management-intensive grazing or planned grazing) can lower production costs, reduce animal stress, and boost the animal's immune system. This publication highlights these and other practices producers are using to provide customers with nutritious food from sustainable farms and ranches. Table of Contents
Introduction: Towards a Pasture-Based Cattle Production SystemCattle are natural grazers. They possess the remarkable ability to digest plant carbohydrates that are generally indigestible to most other mammals. It is natural then to assume that grazing is the best way to supply a nutrient-dense diet to growing cattle. Since the end of World War II, however, this has not been the case. The widespread use of synthetic, soluble fertilizers and other agri-chemicals emerged in the mid-twentieth century. These materials, coupled with plant breeding technology and larger machinery for more efficient tillage and harvesting, led to unprecedented high corn yields and subsequent cheap corn prices. Crop subsidies became part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) policy. With subsidized prices, agricultural producers continued to provide markets with large quantities of corn. An economic incentive was created to finish beef on corn rations and to feed it to high-producing dairy cattle. Prior to this period, cattle production was an integral part of diversified family farms. Cattle would consume crop residues and forages, and contribute manure to the soil. The farm family would always have a beef for the year, and the surplus was sold off the farm to contribute to the food needs of the community. A surplus of cheap corn combined with low fuel prices helped to foster the industrialization of cattle production. High-energy feedstuff in large volumes was provided to feedlots of ever-increasing size and scale. Today, feedlots with capacities in excess of one hundred thousand head are not uncommon. The use of confinement feeding technology is just one facet of modern agribusiness to facilitate the disconnect between soil, crops, and manure. Smaller diversified farms could utilize farm-grown crop residues and animal manure. Large grain farms rely on off-farm inputs for fertility, however, and never see the manure that results from the feeding of their corn. This disconnect has turned a once valuable source of fertilizer into at best "waste" and at worst, a pollutant. Nitrates and phosphates from commercial fertilizers and runoff from manure piles in feedlots account for a very large proportion of agricultural pollution to surface and ground water. Sustainable agriculture is a biologically supported production system based on natural principles that demonstrate a very high degree of system resilience. Sustainable agriculture seeks to establish and maintain agricultural production and distribution systems that are economically viable, ecologically sound, and socially just. For beef and dairy production to be environmentally and financially sustainable, they must of necessity be based on the most renewable resource available to the stock grower: grasses, legumes, and other edible plants and the ecological system that supports them. Pasture-based production systems can be inherently resilient to market price fluctuations due to a reliance on renewable pasture. This is exemplified by farmers, ranchers, and graziers who see themselves as having become principally grass farmers who produce beef or milk only secondarily. Under this model cattle become grass-harvesting tools used to maintain pasture health and to provide meat and milk for the market. Producers rely on this naturally low-input system where feed costs are reduced, animal health is maximized, and a wholesome product is provided to the public. Consumers are becoming more demanding that agricultural products are carefully produced, with concern for soil and water, crops and animals, and the people who work in production and processing. Consumer Perception and Market Demand for Different Kinds of Beef and Dairy ProductsThe demand for pasture-finished beef, natural beef, and organic beef is growing in the United States, as is the demand for organic and pasture-raised milk and cheese products. In fact, demand for natural and organic milk and meat outstrips supply in most U.S. markets, as evidenced by processors, marketers, and suppliers seeking grass-fed products from South America. Pasture-finished, natural, and organic food sales have increased from $5.5 billion in 1997 to $12 billion in 2002, a 24 percent annual growth rate. Meat comprises 21 percent of the overall U.S. retail food market. Pasture-finished, natural, and organic meat's share of the market is at 5 percent. Continued growth in demand for these meat products is expected, including direct, local sales of carcasses and retail cuts to families via farm visits, farmer's markets, and by mail-order. Many market analyses suggest the possibility of a viable market well into future years. Currently the demand for organic and pasture-based dairy products is greater than supplies, as many processors fall short of milk each week by hundreds of thousands of pounds. Organic milk prices at the farm, which at the time of this writing approach $25 per cwt (hundredweight) in some areas, are an enormous incentive for many small and medium size dairy producers not able to compete in the conventional milk market. Current prices range from $11 to $15 per cwt in some areas. For more information on consumer demand issues in meat and milk marketing, see the Agricultural Marketing Resource Center's Web site. Pasture-Appropriate Animals for Sustained Cattle ProductionMatching the right animal or plant with the appropriate environment is a wise management decision that leads to healthy animals and a productive and successful farming system. Ecological farmers know that organisms adapted to the climate and habitat do much better than those placed into situations nature might not have intended. Selecting the right genetics for pasture-based production is therefore of utmost importance. Beef CattleIn general, you want an animal that combines maternal traits like milking ability with early maturity and tenderness. These three traits are important because a cow must calve on pasture and raise a thrifty calf that lays down fat quickly (because growing seasons may be limited). The carcass should yield high quality beef that provides a positive eating experience for the customer. For this reason the moderate body-type English breeds usually fit best with grass operations. However, it is important to remember that there is wide variability in the expression of the traits important for pasture based systems, even within breeds. Select for particular production traits in breeds such as Angus, Hereford, Shorthorn, and other, rarer breeds such as Devon, Dexter, and American Low-Line. Breeds of importance in the humid south are Brahman and Brahman-cross composites, such as Beefmaster, Santa Gertrudis, Brangus and Braford. Brahman cattle are very tolerant of heat, humidity, and parasites, and have excellent maternal traits. However they do not have the carcass characteristics and marbling that consumers have come to expect. For this reason most producers in the humid south keep the Brahman influence in their cow herd to three-eighths or less and no more than one quarter Brahman breeding in terminal calves. Dairy CattleThe dairy industry in the U.S. has been under very intensive consolidation and industrialization pressure to maximize the efficiencies that come with large-scale production. Since the 1950's, dairy farms have been getting bigger, and have been relying on harvested grain and forages to provide high quality feedstuffs to support enormous milk yields. Modern Holsteins can produce more than 60 pounds of milk per day, and many farms report herd averages in excess of 20,000 pounds per lactation. According to the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy, grass-based dairy farming is on the increase, and this necessitates a very different type of animal. Low-cost, grass-based dairies often cannot support the high nutritional requirements needed by large-framed, high producing cattle. Grass-based dairy producers are utilizing Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, and Jersey for their ability to maintain condition, milk production, and reproduction on forage. These cattle are typically smaller-framed and have lower nutrient requirements than Holsteins. Again, there is wide variability in the expression of the traits important for pasture based systems, even within dairy breeds. A good example is the Holstein genetics being developed through selection by grass-based producers in New Zealand.
For more information on livestock breeds see the Oklahoma State University Animal Science Web site. Information on rare breeds can be found at the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy Web site. Cattle NutritionCattle require consistent sources of protein, energy, minerals, vitamins, and water to maintain productivity and health. For detailed information on ruminant physiology and nutrition contact ATTRA at 800-346-9140. The producer can determine an overall picture of the nutritional status of the herd by:
The following section highlights some of the nutrients important in cattle production. EnergyFeed intake is regulated by an animal's energy needs. Therefore, energy should be considered first when attempting to balance animal diets. Adequate energy concentration in the diet allows cattle to utilize other nutrients such as protein, vitamins, and minerals. Some of the major determinants of an animal's energy requirements are:
The energy requirements of growing or lactating cattle can be met with fresh pasture or with high quality grass-legume hay in the winter. However energy supplementation on pasture is often effective in maintaining high gains and milk production. Dry cows can subsist on lower quality feedstuffs, but must be maintained at an acceptable body condition score in order to be successfully bred and deliver a healthy calf. Energy is important for cattle on high protein pasture. The microbes that occupy the rumen need energy to digest all the protein being ingested by the animal. If the microbes do not get enough energy, protein is converted to urea and is passed through urine. For very high producing cattle like growing steers and lactating cows, an energy supplement such as grain can result in better protein digestion, and therefore higher milk production and greater weight gains. Most dairy graziers who supplement their cattle provide from 8 to 18 pounds of corn per head per day, depending on the quality of the pasture, in addition to free choice forage or pasture. Forages have the ability to supply all the energy needed to maintain highly-productive cattle throughout the growing season, but only when managed intensively. A legume-grass pasture will easily have a protein content greater than 18 percent and high digestible energy during the vegetative stage. As plants mature, the nutrient value lowers. Consider getting your forage analyzed to determine nutrient content and concentration. Your local Cooperative Extension office can assist in sampling forage. For more specific information on grazing nutrition see the Further Resources section below. ProteinCows generally require crude protein in the range of 7 to 14 percent of daily dry matter intake. Dry cows require less, and pregnant and lactating cows, especially dairy cattle, require more. Growing cattle, including replacement heifers and steers, require from 10.5 to 14 percent of their daily dry matter intake to be protein. Approximately two pounds per day is a rough average if supplementing protein concentrate. Minerals and VitaminsThe principal minerals of concern for cattle on growing forages are calcium and magnesium. Others to consider are salt, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur. These minerals are very important for cellular respiration, nervous system development, protein synthesis and metabolism, and reproduction. Vitamins are important for the formation of catalysts and enzymes that support growth and body maintenance in animals. Vitamin A is an important supplement for grazing animals. Vitamin A supplementation should be included in the mineral mix at about 1,200 to 1,700 IU's (International Units) per pound of dry matter of feed intake per day. Green forage, high quality hay, and cereal grains are typically high in vitamin E. Mineral and vitamin supplements are available in many formulations. Because soils differ in mineral content from place to place, a recommended mineral mix that works in all places is not possible. Check with your local Extension agent or veterinarian to determine the mineral and vitamin mixes and recommendations common to your area. WaterCattle require from three to thirty gallons of water per day. Factors that affect water intake include age, physiological status, temperature, and body size. A rule of thumb is that cattle will consume about one gallon of water per 100 pounds of body weight during winter and two gallons per 100 pounds of body weight during hot weather. In general, double the estimates for lactating cattle. Water should be clean and fresh. Dirty water decreases water intake. Remember that all other nutrient metabolism in the body depends on water, and if a cow stops drinking, nutrient metabolism (growth and lactation) will decrease. Health and Disease ManagementCattle health management is a disease prevention strategy that includes:
The natural living conditions of pastures decrease animal stress and remove unnecessary burdens on the immune system. Other practices such as sanitation, quarantine of new animals, and the use of probiotics in young animals can also foster a healthier environment for livestock. Disease prevention is the best health plan for your herd, and a well-planned pasture-based system effectively eliminates many disease vectors and alleviates many nutritional disorders. Calves that are weaned, castrated, dehorned, and inoculated, and then sent to a drylot to eat unfamiliar hay and grains are subjected to many simultaneous stresses. They become particularly prone to respiratory infections. However, calves that are castrated early, naturally dehorned with a polled bull, and weaned on grass, tend to be healthier and achieve a gain weight much more rapidly than do conventionally weaned counterparts.
DiseaseDisease is a condition that usually occurs when an infectious agent comes in contact with an immunocompromised host. Stress factors usually underlie compromised immune systems. Stress factors in beef cattle production include hunger, heat, cold, dampness, wind, injury, fatigue, and rough handling. Infectious agents include viruses and bacteria which cause many of the following disease conditions. For more detailed information on cattle diseases, refer to your local county Extension agent. Many state Cooperative Extension services offer free publications on the diseases endemic to your area. The Merck Veterinary manual is also a very good reference on animal diseases, prevention, and treatment. Refer to the Resources section for information to obtain a copy. The following section highlights some of the diseases and disorders a producer should keep in mind when considering a pasture-based beef or dairy operation. Producers should cooperatively develop a herd health plan with the local veterinarian. MastitisMastitis is a bacterial infection of the mammary glands caused by contaminated bedding, teat trauma, flies, or the use of hoses in the milking parlor to clean udders. An abnormal discharge from the teats confirms a diagnosis. This can range from off-colored milk to a white, yellow, or red, viscous pus-like discharge. In advanced cases the infected udder quarter will become very hard and milk production declines. Treatment consists of antibiotics in conventional herds, and homeopathic infusions and ointments for organic herds. Cattle producers can minimize the incidence of mastitis through sanitation, avoidance of mud and manure on the udder, pasture-feeding and calving, and maintaining the cattle on a high plane of nutrition. Some organic producers treat infected cows with antibiotics and cull them from the organic herd to maintain organic integrity. For more information on organic mastitis treatment, see Paul Dettloff, Alternative Treatments for Ruminant Animals in the Resources section. Bovine Spongiform EncephalopathyBSE (called Mad Cow Disease by some) is a brain-wasting disease affecting cattle. It is closely related to a human variant called Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD), and is thought to be caused by an abnormal protein called a prion that infects the nervous system and causes behavioral changes, loss of coordination, trembling, and ultimately death. BSE was first reported in Great Britain in 1986 and has been associated with the feeding of animal by-products, specifically nervous system tissue, in cattle rations. Since the prions are found only in an infected animal's nervous system, transmission is thought to be limited to ingestion of nervous tissue. Prevention of contamination is the only known method to maintain a BSE-free herd. The USDA has instituted a BSE control program that focuses on three key efforts: 1. banning and restricting imports of cattle and cattle products Producers of organic and 100-percent pasture-finished beef may have an advantage from a livestock and human health perspective in that animal by-products are fed at no time during the animal's life. Consumers who purchase and eat pasture-fed beef can be more confident that the products are free from infectious agents that might compromise human health. More information on BSE can be found at the USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) newsroom Web site. Calf ScoursCalf scours occur when a calf is born with (1) limited immunity, and/or (2) introduced into an environment conducive to microbial (viruses and bacteria) infection. It is considered a management disease and can be prevented by taking care of the cow prior to birth and the calf after birth. Scours are usually expressed as diarrhea, skin elasticity from dehydration, weakness, loss of nursing reflex, and a drop in core body temperature. When administered soon enough, fluid rehydration, electrolytes, and drenching with probiotics can save a stricken calf. It is critically important to rehydrate the calf as soon as signs of infection become evident. Some principle factors that predispose a calf to scours are:
Managing calving such that these factors are minimized lessens the chances that calves become sick. Many producers credit pasture-based systems (and adjusting the calving season to occur when temperatures are warmer and grass is available) for reducing incidence of scour. An environment conducive to animal health can reduce or even completely eliminate calf scour problems. Cows benefit from calving on green pasture by:
Plant ToxicityGraziers must pay careful attention to the negative health effects that certain plants can cause in livestock. Some of the more common and economically important disorders are:
These conditions are covered in detail in the ATTRA publication Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management, available by calling 800-346-9140. Other good sources of information on plant toxicity are your local Cooperative Extension office (see box) and the book Southern Forages (see Ball in the References section below for more information).
Internal and External ParasitesInternal parasites are a problem in many parts of the United States, notably those in warmer, more humid regions such as the South and East. Parasitism is manifested in cattle by:
The first line of defense in parasite control should be to maintain optimal livestock nutrition. The second line of defense is to enhance immunity through biodiversity on the farm. Finally, a third line of defense is to establish specific management strategies that can reduce the incidence of parasitism. These strategies include:
Sustainable and organic producers have come to recognize that as animals become adapted to a system, internal parasites cease to be a problem. Good health and natural immunity goes a long way to reduce the incidence of both disease and parasitism. For more in-depth information, please see the ATTRA publication Integrated Parasite Management for Livestock. A Word on ParacitacidesBeef producers have historically relied on paracitacides (chemical dewormers) to combat parasitic pests such as the brown stomach worm, which can cause significant health and economic damage to a cow herd when infection is severe. A common practice is to alternate applications of different paracitacide products to reduce the chance that the parasites will become immune to a particular treatment. Many injectable and pour-on types of paracitacides are available. Many dewormers are not biodegradable and remain active in manure. These products become a part of the pasture environment, and several kill dung beetles, and may have other unintended side effects as well. If you plan to use a dewormer, your veterinarian can recommend an appropriate application schedule for your area. Organic producers' use of synthetic treatments is restricted to breeder stock cattle before the last third of gestation but not during lactation of organic progeny, and to milk animals at least 90 days before milk production (NOP 205.238(b)(1-2)). VaccinesVaccination against disease is an accepted practice in modern cattle production, including organic production, and should complement other preventative health management practices, such as reducing stress, ensuring a balanced ration, and providing pasture as a significant portion of energy needs. Some natural, pasture-based cattle producers contest vaccination, and assert that providing for the development of natural immunity through farm biodiversification protects animals better than a vaccination regime. Vaccines are seen by these practitioners as a bypass of natural immunity. Regardless, vaccination is a tool that should be carefully considered by the producer and the veterinarian, and is not meant to take the place of good animal management. Every producer should develop a vaccination program to address the risks of diseases endemic to the region. Consult your veterinarian to determine the types of vaccines recommended for your area. For more information see General Principles of Vaccination and Vaccines, in Cow-Calf Management Guide and Cattle Producers' Library listed in the Resources section. The National Animal Identification System (NAIS)Animal health issues have become more important in the United States since the discovery of a BSE-positive cow in Washington State in December of 2003. As a result the USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service has begun administering the development of a nationwide livestock identification system that will allow officials to track animals to the source in the event of an animal disease outbreak. The plan, called the National Animal Identification System, or NAIS, is composed of a database and tracking system that will be able to "identify all animals and premises that have had contact with a foreign or domestic animal disease of concern within 48 hours after discovery. As an information system that provides for rapid tracing of infected and exposed animals during an outbreak situation, the NAIS will help limit the scope of such outbreaks and ensure that they are contained and eradicated as quickly as possible" (USDA, 2005). Consumers often cite food safety as among the most important factors that influence their buying decisions. The NAIS was established to address these issues and assure consumers that the meat and milk they consume is wholesome and safe. Consumer confidence in the safety of their food hinges on knowing an animal's complete history, or preserving the identity of each animal that becomes food. Producers of certified organic products—whether they be crops, livestock or processed products—have always been required to maintain records that can assist the tracking of products from their origin to final sale. Other producers maintain transparent tracking systems through direct marketing relationships with consumers. Although different groups may differ about how that traceability should be documented, most everyone agrees that it is an important issue. For more information on the National Animal Identification Program see the ATTRA publication The National Animal Identification System (NAIS): What it is, and how to participate in the process. Integrating Cattle into Cropping Systems
Cattle have the potential to give value to cover crops in rotation, where the land might otherwise not yield an economic return. (Bender, 1998) Many farmers utilize legume cover crops in rotation to build soil and increase soil nitrogen for subsequent crops. Cover crops greatly benefit small grain and vegetable yields without the use of soluble fertilizers. However, most cover crops are used as green manures and incorporated into the soil in preparation for subsequent crops. Cattle grazing on legume cover crops can benefit the farm system economically and ecologically. By selling fed steers or custom grazing yearlings, a financial return can be made on the land. Furthermore, through added nutrient cycling (dunging and urine deposition), soil fertility can be enhanced. If you are considering adding a grazing component to an existing cropping system, note that the cost of electric fencing and water delivery can eat up profits quickly unless these structures are already in place. Consider grazing more valuable animals, such as steers or replacement heifers, instead of cows. Steers and heifers are generally maintained for a short period of time, and you will not have to cover yearly maintenance costs associated with keeping a cow herd. However, raising steers or heifers can require more management skill. For more information on alternative beef enterprises see the Further Resources section below.
Before starting a new grazing enterprise, conduct an economic analysis to measure your break-even cost, and determine how many animals it will take to make a profit. Pastures and Grazing Management
A pasture is "a complex inter-relationship of plant, temperature, light, soil, organisms, nutrients, water, and livestock that make the pasture a continually changing (dynamic) ecosystem." (Murphy, 1995) Pastures are the foundation of sustainable livestock production. They are best maintained by developing a grazing system or plan that conserves the soil and plant resource while maximizing productivity within the natural limits of the particular ecology of the farm. A grazing system or plan will ration out forage according to animal requirements, allowing full plant recovery while minimizing forage waste. (Murphy, 1995) The elements of a sustainable grazing management system are: 1. proper timing of grazing (corresponding to plant physiological stage) Grazing systems best suited to the aforementioned elements are those that employ a rotation where animals are placed on a paddock at high density and moved to another paddock at the appropriate time. Most rotational grazing systems utilize ten or more paddocks to best achieve the benefits of the system. This type of rotational grazing has been called planned grazing, controlled grazing, management-intensive grazing, and intensive rotational grazing. Whatever the name, the main point of this system is that it allows for more effective forage use by increasing forage quality and decreasing grazing selectivity. A common sight in every region of the country is a pasture full of cows, sheep, or horses and not a blade of grass in sight. The pasture might be green, but the grass is cropped so close it resembles a pool table, and thistles are the tallest plant in the field. This condition, called overgrazing, occurs when the grazing pressure exceeds the carrying capacity of the pasture. Many times we are tempted to assume the culprit to be too many animals on the pasture. However, overgrazing is the result of time on pasture, not grazing intensity. In other words, overgrazing is caused by allowing animals, whether many or few, to remain on a pasture for too long. A grazing system will permit (1) moderate defoliation, and then (2) allow time for regrowth. If either one of these points is missing, an overgrazed pasture is the likely result. There are a great many well-prepared resources available to assist producers in designing and implementing a controlled grazing system. For more detailed information on pastures and grazing management, contact your local or state Cooperative Extension office. In addition, ATTRA offers the following publications: Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems for Controlled Grazing; Rotational Grazing; Nutrient Cycling in Pastures; Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource; Pastures: Sustainable Management; Managed Grazing in Riparian Areas; and Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management. See also the Further Resources section at the end of this publication for more books and Web sites on pastures and grazing management. Organic Cattle ProductionThe production of organic livestock products is based on four fundamental criteria:
Conversion to organic production requires the development of an organic system plan, and an organic livestock plan for livestock operations. Organic certification of the land requires a transitional period of three years from the last application of a restricted substance, and yearly inspections and updated applications must be performed to remain in compliance. The National Organic Program (NOP) Rule states that "livestock products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organic must be from livestock under continuous organic management from the last third of gestation." (USDA, 2006b) In addition, livestock used as breeder stock "may be brought from a nonorganic operation onto an organic operation at any time: Provided, that, if such livestock are gestating and the offspring are to be raised as organic livestock, the breeder stock must be brought onto the facility no later than the last third of gestation." (USDA, 2006b) There are many excellent resources to assist farmers and ranchers in the transition to organic production. ATTRA's Organic Certification Process; Preparing for an Organic Inspection: Steps and Checklists; Organic Farm Certification and the National Organic Program; NCAT's Organic Livestock Workbook—A Guide to Sustainable and Allowed Practices; National Organic Program Compliance Checklist for Producers; and Organic Livestock Documentation Forms are available free of charge by calling 800-346-9140. Slaughter and Meat ProcessingProcessing includes everything from slaughter to cutting to wrapping and storage. Meat must be processed in a state or federally inspected processing plant, and the plant must be organically certified if the beef is to be sold as certified organic. This, unfortunately, has become a bottleneck in the organic meat industry. There are many farmers and ranchers who can and want to produce organic, and/or grass-fed beef and milk products. As well, there are many customers who would like to purchase sustainably raised animal products. But there remain very few small and medium-size processors who can make the link from animal to retail, especially for small farmers who would like to direct-market their products. Small and medium-size processors are particularly hard hit when it comes to government regulation. Food safety regulations, important as they are, remain heavily influenced by and developed for large-scale meat processors. Small and very small size processors do not have the scale or size to absorb the structural and equipment costs often associated with food safety regulations. Many operate on very tight margins just to stay in business. Small and very small plants make up 90 percent of all federally inspected processing plants in the U.S. According to the USDA, a small plant employs between 10 and 500 people, and a very small plant employs up to 10. Together these two types generate more than $5 million in annual sales. The USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service has a Web site providing outreach information to small and very small plant operators. An alternative that some producers are developing is the concept of a small, mobile processing plant that can be towed from farm to farm for slaughter and initial cutting. The Lopez Community Land Trust in northwest Washington State has a Web site with information on mobile processors. For more information on mobile processors see the LCLT Web site. Finally, another issue is that current federal law does not allow beef producers to sell state-inspected processed products into interstate commerce, although there is currently discussion within Congress to redress this issue. Though state-inspected processors need to meet federal standards, this has historically prevented cattle farmers from selling their state-inspected products in larger market areas, which may be just across the state border from where the closest state-inspected processors are located. Generally speaking, there are more state-inspected facilities than USDA-inspected facilities. Fewer USDA inspected facilities entails higher transportation and processing costs for the beef or dairy producer who ends up having to travel long distances to get his or her products processed. The mobile processing plant described earlier was developed because, prior to its creation, livestock producers had to transport their product over 300 miles to a USDA-inspected processing facility, making it too costly to garner the added value by having a closer processor. Milk Quality IndicatorsThe four primary quality factors for milk are percent protein, percent butterfat, percent lactose, and somatic cell count (SCC). These four measures determine how much a dairy farmer is paid for the milk produced. The biggest constituent in milk is water, so pricing milk based on the concentrations of solids is a better indicator of the value of fluid milk, especially for processors of products such as butter, cheese, and ice cream.
Somatic cell count—SCC is a measure of white blood cells in fluid milk. High levels of white blood cells in milk indicate infection, such as mastitis, and lowers milk quality. Healthy cows have a SCC lower than 200,000 cells per milliliter. Dairy marketers and processors specify a limit of SCC they will accept. Antibiotics—The presence of antibiotics in milk is disallowed. Producers who use antibiotics to treat infection must not allow milk from treated cows to get into the bulk tank. In these cases, treated cows are milked after all the healthy cows have been milked, the piping to the bulk tank is disconnected, and the milk is either dumped or fed to suckling calves. Milk containing antibiotics cannot be sold for human consumption. Marketing OverviewDemand is growing for organic and grass-fed products. However, marketing has been one of the most daunting activities farmers have encountered. For most graziers, learning to market their products requires new skills and considerable time. Some will choose direct marketing venues such as farmers' markets and direct sales, whereas others will opt for cooperative marketing. Becoming a member of a farmer cooperative is very attractive to many farmers, as cooperatives give the farmer the ability to sell products much the same way as in the commodity market, but often with a premium. Information on dairy marketing can be found in the ATTRA publications The Economics of Grass-Based Dairying and Value-Added Dairy Options. See also Dairy Cattle Production in the Resources section below. For detailed information regarding alternative marketing of beef products, see ATTRA's Beef Marketing Alternatives. Also available is SARE's How to Direct Market Your Beef, available on the Web. The Social and Ecological Concerns of Cattle ProductionOne of the tenets of sustainable agriculture is that the system be sustainable from a social perspective. For instance, agricultural systems should address such concerns as animal welfare, human health, land use, and the urban-rural interface. Sustainable agriculture is concerned with the relationships and connections between farms, communities, and the consumers that support them. The soil is the basis from which life is maintained, and establishing a reconnection between consumers and the land is a very important aspect of ecological agriculture. It is for this reason that the farm's ecology is often extended to include towns, watersheds, and cities. Other issues that can be addressed by re-evaluating agriculture from a position of social sustainability are: 1. Processing, farm supplies, local food systems, etc.—In what ways do local farms work with local processors and retailers? How are inputs produced and distributed within a region? Do consumers have access to locally produced foods? Are consumers educated about local food issues? What about the workers in animal processing plants? Do they receive a living wage? Do they receive benefits? Are they protected from health hazards and risks of injury? If social issues such as land use, community development, and local food system issues are the question, sustainable cattle farms and ranches are an integral part of the answer. A farm that sees its ecological borders extended beyond the fenceline will necessarily involve the community, and will seek opportunities to build community through its production, education, and marketing efforts. In a time when livestock farming is under serious scrutiny it is important to consider the impacts of livestock production in riparian areas, on public lands—including Forest Service and BLM lands—and at the urban-rural interface. Livestock production is coming under fire from many advocates of environmental change, who see historic cattle raising as injurious to sustained, much less improved, environmental integrity. While these groups question the legitimacy of cattle production, whether it is grazing on public land or issues dealing with animal rights and welfare, it becomes imperative that farmers, ranchers, citizens, and policy-makers become informed and educate others about the reality of the ecological impacts of animal agriculture. Domestic cattle do leave a large ecological footprint, especially in environmentally sensitive areas. Desertification in parts of Africa and rangeland decline in the American West are but two obvious examples. Rangeland managers and animal scientists have begun to understand more about the ecology of sensitive lands, and have attempted to describe a history that involved grazing animals in the evolution of perennial grasslands. Many have proposed that the real cause of inefficient or even deleterious use of rangeland is simply mismanagement. If cattle are fenced into a particular ecosystem and overgraze, they place an inordinate pressure on the system it cannot support. The result is a forced shift in plant community away from diversity, complexity, and stability and toward one that is simplistic and unstable. Such a community is inherently unable to cope with ecological, climatic, or biological change. To counter this trend, it is imperative that scientists and land managers foster an understanding of the principles of animal behavior and build production systems that mimic natural systems as much as possible. Many progressive farmers and consumers believe pasture-based cattle production is more ecologically sustainable than conventional, grain-finished, confinement-oriented cattle production, for both beef and dairy products. Conventional beef and dairy production relies on harvested grain as the primary feed source. Conventional agriculture, for all its productivity and cheap food, is by definition not concerned with resource conservation and environmental stewardship. In fact, the conventional paradigm is inconsistent with agricultural sustainability by its very nature. Pasture-based production systems, however, have the inherent ability to support, stabilize, and maintain ecological systems for increased, sustained, efficient food and fiber productivity. Some of the ecological benefits of pasture-based livestock production are as follows: 1. Development and maintenance of soil organic matter and effective nutrient cycling. Final Thoughts
At the time of this writing, the pasture-based cattle production industry does not have a standard such as is found in the National Organic Program (NOP) regulations. The USDA is, however, considering a "USDA Grass-fed" label for animals that are fed at least 99 percent of their diet on pasture. Grass-finished beef and grass-fed dairy products reportedly have many health benefits compromised when an animal is fed even a small amount of grain, even after being on grass since calfhood. Given the market prospects and positive human health and animal welfare attributes, pasture based systems would seem to be the production method of choice for a society engaged in seeking sustainable solutions to the problems inherent in conventional agricultural production. Whether pasture-based beef and dairy systems can become viable as a mainstream production, processing, and distribution system in the United States remains to be seen, however. Given the realities of large scale marketing and distribution, small and medium-size operations are at an extreme disadvantage. Niche marketing remains the most viable option for many producers. For some, joining a cooperative such as Organic Valley or the Organic Grassfed Beef Coalition can be a way to market specialty cattle products to larger markets. In addition, the question has been rightly raised whether the U.S. possesses enough acreage and the associated yearly forage production to sustain a pasture based livestock system. More research is required to address these questions. Sustainable livestock farming and ranching depends on the producer's practical knowledge of a particular piece of land. This is true of any farming enterprise that claims to be truly sustainable. Such practical knowledge is really the manifestation of an intimate relationship with the land; a sense that the land is more than just a foundation from which to engage in an economically profitable enterprise. The land is in a very real sense a living system, abounding in complex and fruitful relationships between soil and soil organisms, plants, water, animals, and people. This agro-ecology that farmers and consumers find themselves in, of which they are very much an integral part, is the basis from which true agricultural knowledge is derived. Agricultural sustainability can be realized only by understanding animals, pastures, crops, markets, and homelife from this holistic perspective. ReferencesDettloff, Paul. 2004. “Alternative Treatment for Ruminant Animals.” Acres USA, Austin, TX. Ball, D., C. Hoveland, and G. Lacefield. 1991. Southern Forages. Norcross, GA: Potash and Phosphate Institute. Bellows, B. 2001. Nutrient Cycling in Pastures. Butte, MT: NCAT. Bender, M. 1998. Beef cattle finishing in summer/fall in a strip cropping system. Santa Cruz: Organic Farming Research Foundation. Murphy, Bill. 1995. “Pasture Management to Sustain Agriculture,” Pages 321-347 in Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture, second edition, edited by Miguel A. Altieri. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. USDA. 2005. National Animal Identification System
(NAIS). Draft Strategic Plan, 2005-2009. USDA
Animal Plant Health Inspection service. USDA. 2006a. National Animal Identification System
(NAIS) website. APHIS. USDA. 2006b. National Organic Program Standards.
Agricultural Marketing Service. ResourcesATTRA Publications Beef Farm Sustainability Checksheet Forage, Pasture, and Rangeland ManagementAlberta Forage Manual Fertility Pastures
Forage Information System
Grazing Systems Planning Guide
Intermountain Planting Guide Management-Intensive Grazing: The Grassroots of Grassfarming, Jim Gerrish, Green Park Publishing
Missouri Grazing Manual
Rangelands West
Pastures for profit: A guide to rotational grazing
Ecology and Ecosystem ManagementBehavioral Education for Human, Animal, and
Ecosystem Management
Foraging Behavior: Managing to Survive in a World
of Change; Behavioral Principles for Human, Animal,
Vegetation, and Ecosystem Management, Grazing Management: an Ecological Perspective
Holistic Management International
Stockmanship: Improving rangeland health through
appropriate livestock handling.
Quivira Coalition
Cattle Nutrition, Health, and Production ManagementBeef Cattle Resources Cow-Calf Management Guide and Cattle Producer’s
Library (CD and print), Merck Veterinary Manual
Dairy Cattle ProductionDairy Farm Manual
The Economics of Organic and Grazing Dairy Farms
Regional Multi-State Interpretation of Small Farm
Financial Data from the Fourth Year Report on 2003
Great Lakes Grazing Network Grazing Dairy Data.
Missouri Dairymen’s Resource Guide
Northeast Organic Dairy Producers Alliance Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle:
Seventh Revised Edition
Organic Dairy Farming: A Resource for Farmers
Pasture for Dairy Cattle: Challenges and Opportunities Prescribed Grazing and Feeding Management for
Lactating Dairy Cows The Small Dairy Resource Book
Cornell University Small Farms Program
Dairy Barn and Equipment PlansColorado State University Resource Center Dairy
Equipment and Housing Plans Canada Plan Service Dairy Cattle Barn and
Equipment Plans Penn State Dairy Housing Plans— NRAES Publications Low Cost Parlor Options CD (2001)
Marketing Agricultural Marketing Resource Center
How to Direct Market Your Beef The Legal Guide for Direct Farm Marketing
Beef and Dairy Marketing Coops, Processors, and Firms Coleman Natural Products, Inc. Dakota Beef, LLC Laura’s Lean Beef Organic Family LLC, DBA Organic Choice
Organic Grassfed Beef Coalition Organic Valley Family of Farms, CROPP Cooperative
Ozark Pasture Beef Tallgrass Beef Company
Grass-Feeding and Grass FinishingEat Wild: The clearinghouse for information
about pasture-based farming
Grass-Fed Cattle: How to Produce and Market
Natural Beef
Whole Farm Planning for the Production
of Grass-Fed Beef, Livestock HandlingLivestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities and Humane
Slaughter,
PeriodicalsHoard’s Dairyman
The Forage Leader
In Practice The Stockman Grass Farmer
Graze
Rangelands
Further ResourcesAmaral-Phillips, D.M., R.W. Hemken, J. C. Henning, and L. W. Turner. 1997. Pasture for Dairy Cattle: Challenges and Opportunities. Lexington: University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. 2005.“Natural Beef.” Ames, IA: Iowa State University, Retrieved December 20, 2005 www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/livestock/beef/beef+natural.htm Altieri, M.A. 1995. Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture, 2nd Edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Altieri, M.A. 2005. Agroecology: Principles and strategies for designing sustainable farming systems. Berkeley, CA: Agroecology in Action. Retrieved December 20, 2005 http://nature.berkeley.edu/~agroeco3/principles_and_strategies.html Boland, Michael. 2003. The Natural Beef Market in the United States. Montevideo, Uruguay: Institutio Nacional de Carnes. Blanchet, K., H. Moechnig, and J. DeJong-Hughes. 2003. Grazing Systems Planning Guide. St. Paul: University of Minnesota Extension Service. Cheeke, Peter. 1993. Impacts of Livestock Production on Society, Diet/Health, and the Environment. Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers. 239 pp. Faulkner, D., D.F. Parrett, and T. Stoughtenborough. 1998. Small Scale Beef Production Handbook. University of Illinois Extension. 15 pp. http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/pdf_pubs/beef.pdf [PDF / 1.41M] Gerrish, J. 2004. Management-Intensive Grazing: The Grassroots of Grass Farming. Ridgeland, MS: Green Park Press.. Hammack, Stephan. 1998. Breeding Systems for Beef Production. College Station: Texas A&M University System. Hansen, D. 2003. Brucellosis Considerations for Western Beef Herds, in Cow-Calf Management Guide and Cattle Producers Library. University of Idaho: Western Beef Resource Committee. 2 pp. Hoards Dairyman. July 2006. Fort Atkinson, WI. Holder, Jan. 2005. How to Direct Market Your Beef. Beltsville, MD: Sustainable Agriculture Network.www.sare.org/publications/beef/beef.pdf [PDF/ 2M] Ikerd, John. 1999. The Real Economics of Factory Livestock. Paper presented at “Farm to Fork: Reclaiming our Food System from Corporate Giants,” cosponsored by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Izaak Walton League, and MN Farmers Union, Bloomington, MN, September 18, 1999. Klopfenstein, Terry. 1996. Need for escape protein by grazing cattle. Animal Feed Science Technology 60: 191-199 (no. 3-4, August). Kvasnicka, B. and C. Bagley. 2003. General Principles of Vaccination and Vaccines, Cow-Calf Management Guide and Cattle Producers Library. University of Idaho: Western Beef Resource Committee. 4 pp. Lacey, J., E. Williams, J. Rolleri, and C. Marlow. 1994. A Guide for Planning, Analyzing, and Balancing Forage Supplies with Livestock Demand. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University Extension. Lindemann, W.C. and C.R. Glover. 2003. Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes, Guide A-129. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University Extension. Merck. 2006. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Co. Accessed April 28, 2006 from www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp. Martz, F. 2000. Pasture-based Finishing of Cattle and Eating Quality of Beef. University of Missouri, Columbia. Minson, Dennis J. 1990. Forage in Ruminant Nutrition. New York: Academic Press, Inc. Montana DNRC. 1999. Best Management Practices for Grazing in Montana. Helena, MT: Montana Department of Natural Resources. Muller, Lawrence. 1996. Nutritional considerations for dairy cattle on intensive grazing systems. Proceedings of the Maryland Grazing Conference. NCAT. 2004. Organic Livestock Workbook: A Guide to Sustainable and Allowed Practices. Butte, MT: National Center for Appropriate Technology. O’Mary, C.C. and I.A Dyer. 1978. Commercial Beef Cattle Production, second edition. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Pirelli, G.J., S. Weedman-Gunkel, and D.W. Weber. 2000. Beef Production for Small Farms: An Overview, EC 1514. Oregon State University Extension Service. Ritchie, Harlan. 1994. A Review of Applied Beef Cattle Nutrition. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Extension. Sanderson, M.A., C. A. Rotz, S. W. Fultz, and E. B. Rayburn. 2001. Estimating Forage Mass with a Commercial Capacitance Meter, Rising Plate Meter, and Pasture Ruler. Agron. J. 93:1281–1286. Sheley, R.L., T.J. Svejcar, B.D. Maxwell, and J.S. Jacobs. 1999. Healthy Plant Communities, MT199909 AG. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University Extension. SRM. No Date. Rangeland Resources of North America. Lakewood, CO: Society for Range Management. Article accessed at www.rangelands.org/publications_brochures.shtml. Surber, G., T. Fisher, D. Cash, P. Dixon and J. Moore. 2001. Swath/Windrow Grazing: An Alternative Livestock Feeding Technique, MT200106 AG. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University Extension. Undersander, D., B. Albert, D. Cosgrove, D. Johnson, and P. Peterson. 2002. Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing. Cooperative Extension Publishing, University of Wisconsin-Extension. USDA. 1997. Conservation Practice Standard, Prescribed Grazing, Code 528A. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. www.aces.edu/department/aawm/al528a.pdf [PDF / 96K] Case Study
Cattle Production: Considerations for Pasture-Based Beef and Dairy Producers
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Site Map | Comments | Disclaimer | Privacy Policy | Webmaster Copyright © NCAT 1997-2009. All Rights Reserved. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.jpg)
