Publications

Natural Resources & Environment

Subtopics

Integrating Invasive Species Prevention And Control Policies

Programs and policies to minimize the threat of, or mitigate the damages from, invasive species work best if designed in concert with each other. Whether program emphasis should be on prevention or control depends on the biological characteristics and size of the invasive species population, ecological characteristics of invaded ecosystems, the cost and efficacy of prevention measures relative to control measures, and the level of prevention costs borne abroad. Because all of these factors are highly variable, data needs are constant if intervention is to be both effective and economical.
EB-11 8 pp 9/19/2008 9:00:00 AM

Economic Measures of Soil Conservation Benefits: Regional Values for Policy Assessment

This report describes data and methodologies that the Economic Research Service has used to apply monetary values to changes in soil erosion. Values and methodology are clearly described so that analysts can apply the data to specific soil conservation projects. ERS has used the values to estimate soil conservation benefits of changes in farm programs and practices, but no analyses of farm programs or practices are provided here. The benefit values are regional dollar-per-ton measures of 14 different categories of soil conservation benefits. There are other soil conservation benefits categories beyond those reported here, so a full accounting of benefits is not possible. As a result, monetary values derived from applications of these data are likely to be lower-bound estimates of the benefits or costs of changes in soil erosion. The data are thought to be detailed enough for national and regional estimates, but lack precision for smaller scale estimates.
TB-1922 31 pp 9/19/2008 9:00:00 AM

Regulating Agricultural Imports To Keep Out Foreign Pests and Disease

Increasing agricultural imports benefits U.S. consumers, but shipments can transport harmful foreign pests and diseases. The United States and other nations use a number of approaches to reduce risks to agriculture and the environment from pests and diseases entering through trade. Economic analysis can help identify measures that mitigate risks of economic or environmental damage with minimal impact on trade benefits.
AER 9/2/2008 9:00:00 AM

Amber Waves, September 2008

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’s research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September and November). The internet edition, or “eZine,” includes links to web –only resources, such as podcasts and additional articles.
AER 9/2/2008 9:00:00 AM

Creating Markets for Environmental Stewardship: Potential Benefits and Problems

Farmers and other landowners typically under-provide environmental services such as clean air and water, carbon sequestration, and improved wildlife habitat. Markets for environmental services could increase farmer investments in environmental stewardship, thereby expanding the supply of environmental services. Impediments to the formation of fully functioning markets for agricultural environmental services may be difficult or costly to overcome.
AER 9/2/2008 9:00:00 AM

The Use of Markets To Increase Private Investment in Environmental Stewardship

U.S. farmers and ranchers produce a wide variety of commodities for food, fuel, and fiber in response to market signals. Farms also contain significant amounts of natural resources that can provide a host of environmental services, including cleaner air and water, flood control, and improved wildlife habitat. Environmental services are often valued by society, but because they are a public good—that is, people can obtain them without paying for them—farmers and ranchers may not benefit financially from producing them. As a result, farmers and ranchers underprovide these services. This report explores the use of market mechanisms, such as emissions trading and eco-labels, to increase private investment in environmental stewardship. Such investments could complement or even replace public investments in traditional conservation programs. The report also defines roles for government in the creation and function of markets for environmental services.
ERR-64 77 pp 9/2/2008 9:00:00 AM

Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management, Fiscal 2008, Competitive Award Program: Description and Application Process

Under the Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management (PREISM), ERS supports and conducts research to improve the economic basis of decisionmaking concerning invasive issues, policies, and programs. Program themes have included international dimensions of invasive species prevention and management; development and application of methods to analyze important invasive species issues, policies, and programs; and analysis of economic, institutional, and behavioral factors affecting decisions to prevent or manage invasive species. This document describes the application process for submitting research proposals to be considered for fiscal 2008 competitive awards. The deadline for submission is April 25, 2008.
AP-026 25 pp 3/28/2008 11:00:00 AM

Equilibrium Displacement Mathematical Programming Models: Methodology and a Model of the U.S. Agricultural Sector

The objective of this research is to extend and generalize the equilibrium displacement methodology by combining it with mathematical programming methods and existing knowledge of farm sector relationships to develop sectoral adjustment models that can operate in pure competition, monopoly/monopsony, or mixed-competition. A model of the U.S. agricultural sector at the national aggregate level is presented to illustrate the methods. An appendix contains a user's manual describing the operation of the model. Further appendices contain documentation of the structure of the spreadsheets, the programming tableau, and the SAS solution program.
TB-1918 61 pp 2/11/2008 9:00:00 AM

The 2002 Farm Bill: Provisions and Economic Implications

The Farm Security Act of 2002, which governs Federal farm programs for 2002-07, was signed into law on May 13, 2002. This publication presents an overview of the Act and a side-by-side comparison of 1996-2001 farm legislation and the 2002 Act. For selected programs, information is provided to additional analyses of key changes, program overview, and economic implications.

For the most recent farm bill analysis, see Farm Bill Resources: ERS Research and Analysis

AP-022 117pp 1/23/2008

Farm-Based Recreation: A Statistical Profile

Farm-based recreation provides an important niche market for farmers, but limited empirical information is available on the topic. Access to two USDA databases, the 2004 Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) and the 2000 National Survey on Recreation and the Environment, provided researchers with a deeper understanding of who operates farm-based recreation enterprises, such as hunting and fishing operations, horseback riding businesses, on-farm rodeos, and petting zoos. Regression analysis identified the importance of various farmer and farm characteristics, as well as local and regional factors associated with farmer operation of, and income derived from, farm-based recreation.
ERR-53 28 pp 12/31/2007 9:00:00 AM

The Changing Economics of U.S. Hog Production

The increasing size and specialization of hog operations reflect structural change in U.S. swine production during the past 15 years. The number of farms with hogs has declined by over 70 percent, as hog enterprises have grown larger. Large operations that specialize in a single phase of production have replaced farrow-to-finish operations that performed all phases of production. The use of production contracts has increased. Operations producing under contract are larger than independent operations and are more likely to specialize in a single phase of production. These structural changes have coincided with substantial gains in efficiency for hog farms and lower production costs. Most of these productivity gains are attributable to increases in the scale of production and technological innovation. Productivity gains likely contributed to a 30-percent reduction in the price of hogs at the farm gate.
ERR-52 45 pp 12/27/2007 8:00:00 AM

Integrating Conservation and Commodity Program Payments: A Look at the Tradeoffs

A payment program that integrates characteristics of conservation and commodity programs could simultaneously support working farms and ranches while improving environmental quality, with some tradeoffs. If policymakers structure payments to focus on environmental gain, income support benefits would be more broadly distributed across the U.S. agricultural sector. If policymakers seek to preserve the existing distribution of commodity program payments within an integrated program, environmental gain would be lower and its associated per-unit costs higher than under a similar program focused on conservation.
AER 11/1/2007 8:30:00 AM

Amber Waves, November 2007

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’s research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or “eZine,” includes links to web-only resources, such as podcasts and additional articles.
AER 11/1/2007 8:00:00 AM

Integrating Commodity and Conservation Programs: Design Options and Outcomes

Can a single program support farm income and encourage producers to adopt environmentally sound farming practices? While simple in concept, attempting to roll the farm income support features of existing commodity programs and conservation payments into a single program raises questions. Exactly how would farm commodity and conservation payments be combined? What difference would it make for environmental gain and farm income support? This report approaches the questions in two ways. First, spending patterns in existing commodity and conservation programs are analyzed to determine the extent to which producers who are currently receiving commodity payments also receive conservation payments. Then, a number of hypothetical program scenarios are devised and analyzed to estimate how emphasis on current income support recipients would differ from a combined program that focuses on achieving cost-effective environmental gain. The results show that policymakers face significant tradeoffs between environmental (conservation) objectives and farm income support objectives in designing a program that provides both income support and environmental gain.
ERR-44 61 pp 10/30/2007 8:00:00 AM

Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management Fiscal 2003-2006 Activities

Under the Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management (PREISM), ERS supports and conducts research to improve the economic basis of decisionmaking concerning invasive issues, policies, and programs. Program themes have included international dimensions of invasive species prevention and management; development and application of methods to analyze important invasive species issues, policies, and programs; and analysis of economic, institutional, and behavioral factors affecting decisions to prevent or manage invasive species. This report reviews PREISM funding and activities for the 2003-2006 fiscal years.
AP-021 44 pp 7/16/2007 9:00:00 AM

Emphasis Shifts in U.S. Conservation Policy

This article describes the policy shift in the 2002 Farm Bill toward increased funding of conservation policies, and shifting conservation priorities. The share of conservation funds allocated to working lands (land used for crop production or grazing) will increase, a modest increase in retirement programs will focus largely on wetland restoration, and the role of benefit-cost targeting in working land programs will be reduced, potentially reducing the cost-effectiveness of these programs.
AER 5/1/2007 9:15:00 AM

Environmental Credit Trading: Can Farming Benefit?

Environmental credit trading is a market-based approach to complying with regulations with the potential to achieve pollution abatement goals at least cost to society. Agriculture can contribute to credit trading programs by generating pollution-reduction credits through the adoption of environmentally preferred practices and selling the credits to regulated firms.
AER 5/1/2007 9:15:00 AM

Amber Waves Special Issue, May 2007

This special issue of Amber Waves, the magazine of the USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS), provides a closer look at key farm policy topics likely to be considered in the farm bill debate. The issue contains reprints and updates of articles and statistics highlighting: commodity programs, conservation, food and nutrition, rural development, and energy.
AER 5/1/2007 9:00:00 AM

Regional Environment and Agriculture Programming Model (REAP)

The Regional Environment and Agriculture Programming Model (REAP), facilitates scenario—or "what if"—analyses by showing how changes in technology, commodity supply or demand, or farm, resource, environmental, or trade policy could affect a host of performance indicators important to decisionmakers and stakeholders. This report describes its theoretical and modeling system specification and the data used by REAP, and serves as a user guide for setting up and running model simulations.
TB-1916 118 pp 3/30/2007 9:00:00 AM

Amber Waves, September 2006

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’s research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or “eZine,” includes links to web-only resources.
AER 9/1/2006 10:00:00 AM

Agricultural Policy Affects Land Use and the Environment

Economic forces and policy changes encourage producers to shift less productive, or “marginal,” cropland in and out of production. Because marginal lands are also environmentally sensitive along several dimensions, cropland shifts have environmental, as well as economic, effects. Thus, agricultural and conservation programs that affect land use likely have more profound effects on erosion and some other environmental factors than on production.
AER 9/1/2006 10:00:00 AM

Environmental Effects of Agricultural Land-Use Change: The Role of Economics and Policy

This report examines evidence on the relationship between agricultural land-use changes, soil productivity, and indicators of environmental sensitivity. If cropland that shifts in and out of production is less productive and more environmentally sensitive than other cropland, policy-induced changes in land use could have production effects that are smaller—and environmental impacts that are greater—than anticipated. To illustrate this possibility, this report examines environmental outcomes stemming from land-use conversion caused by two agricultural programs that others have identified as potentially having important influences on land use and environmental quality: Federal crop insurance subsidies and the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), the Nation’s largest cropland retirement program.
ERR-25 82 pp 8/31/2006 10:00:00 AM

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2006 Edition

These chapters describe trends in resources used in and affected by agricultural production, as well as the economic conditions and policies that influence agricultural resource use and its environmental impacts. Each of the 28 chapters provides a concise overview of a specific topic with links to sources of additional information. Chapters are available in HTML and pdf formats.
EIB-16 7/21/2006 9:00:00 AM

Land Retirement and Working-land Conservation Structures: A Look at Farmers' Choices

All sizes and types of farms have adopted conservation practices and installed conservation structures. Programs that support a wide range of alternative conservation practices are more likely to match the wide range of interests of farmers. Recent ERS research suggests that farms and farm households that install working-land conservation structures—such as contour strips or grass waterways—often differ from those that retire farmland.
AER 7/7/2006 9:00:00 AM

Environmental Credit Trading: Can Farming Benefit?

Measuring the Success of Conservation Programs

Due to the influence and interactions of many factors, evaluation of conservation programs is a data-intensive and technically challenging process. This article provides an overview of the steps necessary for evaluating the success of conservation program. These steps must address two questions: 1) How do different farm operators in different circumstances decide what production and conservation practices to implement, in the presence and absence of the conservation program being evaluated, at different levels of incentives provided by that program?; and 2) How do the farm practices attributable to conservation program incentives affect environmental quality?
AER 7/7/2006 9:00:00 AM

Improving Air and Water Quality Can Be Two Sides of the Same Coin

Agricultural production practices have generated a variety of substances that enter the atmosphere and have the potential of creating health and environmental problems. The air in some farming communities can be as impaired by pollutants such as ozone and particulates as air in urban areas. Two challenges for reducing air emissions from agriculture are potential inter-relationships with water quality, and a lack of information on farm-level emissions needed for effective regulation and management.
AER 7/7/2006 9:00:00 AM

Farmland Retirement's Impact on Rural Growth

The Feature “Farmland Retirement’s Impact on Rural Growth” addresses an unintended consequences of high levels of enrollment in the CRP, that of farmland retirement’s impact of rural growth. To examine this issue, this article examines the local socioeconomic changes that accompanied CRP enrollment in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and discusses ERS analysis of the potential employment and output changes if all land currently enrolled in the program could be put to other uses, given the current distribution of land, prevailing commodity market conditions, and public policies.
AER 7/7/2006 9:00:00 AM

Emphasis Shifts in U.S. Conservation Policy

Amber Waves, Volume 4, Special Issue, July 2006

This special issue of Amber Waves, the magazine of the USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS), provides a closer look at the relationship between agriculture and the Nation’s land, air, water, and biological resources. The issue contains reprints and updates of articles and statistics highlighting: conservation policy and program design, impact of conservation programs on farmers and the environment, cost-effectiveness of conservation programs, and emerging issues, such as environmental credits.
AER 7/7/2006 9:00:00 AM

Land Retirement and Working-land Conservation Structures: A Look at Farmers' Choices

Amber Waves, June 2006

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS’s research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or “eZine,” includes links to web-only resources.
AER 6/1/2006 9:00:00 AM

Balancing the Multiple Objectives of Conservation Programs

Many of the Nation’s conservation programs use an index approach to prioritize environmental and cost objectives. In an index, objectives are weighted by relative importance. This report provides empirical evidence on the cost and environmental benefit tradeoffs of different weighting schemes in USDA’s Conservation Reserve Program and considers how different weighting schemes encourage different sets of landowners to offer land for enrollment. The report finds that while small changes in index weights do not markedly affect levels of environmental benefits that can be achieved at a national level, larger changes can have a moderate impact.
ERR-19 66 pp 5/31/2006 9:00:00 AM

Major Uses of Land in the United States, 2002

This publication presents the results of the latest (2002) inventory of U.S. major land uses, drawing on data from the Census, public land management and conservation agencies, and other sources. The data are synthesized by State to calculate the use of several broad classes and subclasses of agricultural and nonagricultural land over time. The United States has a total land area of nearly 2.3 billion acres. Major uses in 2002 were forest-use land, 651 million acres (28.8 percent); grassland pasture and range land, 587 million acres (25.9 percent); cropland, 442 million acres (19.5 percent); special uses (primarily parks and wildlife areas), 297 million acres (13.1 percent); miscellaneous other uses, 228 million acres (10.1 percent); and urban land, 60 million acres (2.6 percent). National and regional trends in land use are discussed in comparison with earlier major land-use estimates.
EIB-14 54 pp 5/31/2006 9:00:00 AM

Rewarding Farm Practices versus Environmental Performance

A multitude of design decisions influence the performance of voluntary conservation programs. This Economic Brief is one of a set of five exploring the implications of decisions policymakers and program managers must make about who is eligible to receive payments, how much can be received, for what action, and the means by which applicants are selected. The particular issue examined here is whether to pay for conservation practices or to link payments to environmental performance.
ERSEB5 6 pp 3/14/2006 3:00:00 PM 12.00

Contrasting Working-Land and Land Retirement Programs

A multitude of design decisions influence the performance of voluntary conservation programs. This Economic Brief is one of a set of five exploring the implications of decisions policymakers and program managers must make about who is eligible to receive payments, how much can be received, for what action, and the means by which applicants are selected. In particular, this Brief focuses on potential tradeoffs in balancing land retirement with conservation on working lands.
ERSEB4 6 pp 3/14/2006 3:00:00 PM 12.00

Participant Bidding Enhances Cost Effectiveness

A multitude of design decisions influence the performance of voluntary conservation programs. This Economic Brief is one of a set of five exploring the implications of decisions policymakers and program managers must make about who is eligible to receive payments, how much can be received, for what action, and the means by which applicants are selected. The particular issue examined here is the potential benefits of allowing farmers to "bid" for the activity they will undertake and the level of payment they would receive for it.
ERSEB3 6 pp 3/14/2006 3:00:00 PM 12.00

Better Targeting, Better Outcomes

A multitude of design decisions influence the performance of voluntary conservation programs. This Economic Brief is one of a set of five exploring the implications of decisions policymakers and program managers must make about who is eligible to receive payments, how much can be received, for what action, and the means by which applicants are selected. The particular issue addressed here is options for targeting program payments to where they can yield the greatest gain.
ERSEB2 6 pp 3/14/2006 3:00:00 PM 12.00

Greening Income Support and Supporting Green

A multitude of design decisions influence the performance of voluntary conservation programs. This Economic Brief is one of a set of five exploring the implications of decisions policymakers and program managers must make about who is eligible to receive payments, how much can be received, for what action, and the means by which applicants are selected. In particular, this Brief focuses on potential tradeoffs in combining income support and environmental objectives in a single program.
ERSEB1 6 pp 3/14/2006 3:00:00 PM 12.00

Environmental Credit Trading: Can Farming Benefit?

USDA Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2015

This report, released by the Office of the Chief Economist, provides long-run (10-year) baseline projections for the agricultural sector through 2015. Projections cover agricultural commodities, agricultural trade, and aggregate indicators of the sector, such as farm income and food prices.
OCE-2006-1 113 pp 2/10/2006 4:00:00 PM 33.00

Conservation-Compatible Practices and Programs: Who Participates?

This report examines the business, operator, and household characteristics of farms that have adopted certain conservation-compatible practices, with and without financial assistance from government conservation programs. The analysis finds that attributes of the farm operator and household and characteristics of the farm business are associated with the likelihood that a farmer will adopt certain conservation-compatible practices and the degree to which the farmer participates in conservation programs. For example, operators of small farms and operators not primarily focused on farming are less likely to adopt management-intensive conservation-compatible practices and to participate in working-land conservation programs than operators of large enterprises whose primary occupation is farming.
ERR-14 48 pp 2/1/2006 10:00:00 AM 25.50

Amber Waves, February 2006

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," includes links to web-only resources.
2/1/2006 10:00:00 AM 49.95/year

Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management: Fiscal 2003-2005 Activities

This document discusses the objectives and activities of the Economic Research Service's Program of Research on the Economics of Invasive Species Management (PREISM) and reports important accomplishments for fiscal years 2003-05. Included are descriptions of the extramural research program and all funded projects, and a list of project outputs.
33 pp 1/4/2006 9:00:00 AM 25.50

Amber Waves, November 2005

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS's research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "eZine," includes links to web-only resources.
11/1/2005 9:00:00 AM 49.95/year

Amber Waves, September 2005

Managing Manure to Improve Air and Water Quality

Animal waste from confined animal feeding operations is a potential source of air and water quality degradation. Pollution from animal waste poses challenges to farmers and to resource managers because it can affect multiple resources while environmental laws typically focus only on a single resource. This report assesses the economic and environmental tradeoffs between water quality policies and air quality policies that could require the animal sector to take potentially costly measures to abate pollution, based on a farm-level analysis of hog farms, a national analysis including all sectors, and a regional assessment in an area with high animal numbers.
ERR-9 65 pp 9/26/2005 10:00:00 AM 27.00

Improving Air and Water Quality Can Be Two Sides of the Same Coin

Market-Led Growth vs. Government-Facilitated Growth: Development of the U.S. and EU Organic Agricultural Sectors

Organic farmland and sales are rapidly growing worldwide, and the two largest markets are in the European Union (EU) and the United States. The two regions have adopted different policy approaches to organic agriculture. Many EU countries have "green payments" available for transitioning and continuing organic farmers, as well as a variety of other supply and demand policies aimed at promoting growth of the organic sector. The U.S. Government, in contrast, has largely taken a free-market approach to the organic sector, and policy is aimed at facilitating market development. This report compares EU and U.S. organic agriculture policy and examines the organic sectors in the two regions.
ERSWRS0505 26 pp 8/12/2005 10:00:00 AM 23.00

DatelinERS Newsletter, June 2005

The DatelinERS newsletter offers concise summaries of ERS reports and events with links to areas within our website.
6/17/2005

Flexible Conservation Measures on Working Land

The 2002 Farm Bill sharply increased conservation funding and earmarked most of the increase for working-land payment programs (WLPPs). The design and implementation of WLPPs will largely determine the extent to which environmental goals are achieved and whether they are achieved cost effectively. This report simulates potential environmental gains as well as adjustments in agricultural production, price, and income associated with various WLPP features to illustrate tradeoffs arising from WLPP design and implementation.
ERR-5 79 pp 6/3/2005 3:00:00 PM 29.50

Amber Waves, June 2005

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS's research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "eZine," includes links to web-only resources.
6/3/2005 8:59:00 AM 49.95/year

Crop Genetic Resources: An Economic Appraisal

Crop genetic resources are the basis of agricultural production. However, crop genetic resources are largely public goods, so private incentives for genetic resource conservation may fall short of achieving public objectives. Within the U.S. germplasm system, certain crop collections lack sufficient diversity to reduce vulnerability to pests and diseases. This report examines the role of genetic resources, genetic diversity, and efforts to value genetic resources.
EIB-EIB2 47 pp 5/27/2005 1:00:00 PM 25.50

Recent Agricultural Policy Reforms in North America

Countercyclical assistance is the common thread among recent agricultural policy innovations of the United States, Mexico, and Canada. In other areas, the three countries are pursuing distinct agricultural policies, reflecting differing national objectives and economic contexts.
AER-ERSWRS0503 35 pp 4/19/2005 5:00:00 PM 25.50

DatelinERS Newsletter, March 2005

The DatelinERS newsletter offers concise summaries of ERS reports and events with links to areas within our website.
4/1/2005 12:00:00 PM

Technical Documentation of the Regional Manure Management Model for the Chesapeake Bay Watershed

As part of a broader ERS assessment of the costs of manure management, a regional modeling framework was developed to evaluate the effect of Federal guidelines for farmland application of manure on the costs of hauling and spreading manure. This report presents technical details of the regional modeling system, applied to the Chesapeake Bay watershed. The report includes an overview of the model’s scope and structure, data sources, and modeling assumptions. Results from an initial application of the modeling system are featured in the ERS publication Manure Management for Water Quality: Costs to Animal Feeding Operations of Applying Manure Nutrients to Land (AER-824, June 2003).
TB-1913 56 pp 3/23/2005 11:00:00 AM 27.00

USDA Agricultural Baseline Projections to 2014

This report provides longrun (10-year) baseline projections for the agricultural sector through 2014. Projections cover agricultural commodities, agricultural trade, and aggregate indicators of the sector, such as farm income and food prices.
OCE-2005-1 114 pp 2/11/2005 12:50:00 PM 33.00

A Consideration of the Devolution of Federal Agricultural Policy

Diverse needs and preferences across the United States provide justification for the devolution, or decentralization, of many Federal Government programs to the State or local level. The move toward devolution, however, has not been evidenced in U.S. agricultural policy, despite significant differences across States in such areas as commodity production, production costs, income distribution, and opportunities for off-farm work. The existing structure of USDA funding and program delivery already reflects an appreciation of the gains from devolution, with some programs accommodating differences in State and regional preferences. This report considers the implications of devolving $22 billion in 2003 budget outlays, mostly for domestic commodity and natural resource programs and rural development and housing programs.
AER-836 23 pp 11/3/2004 10:30:00 AM 23.00

Devolution of Farm Programs Could Broaden States' Role in Ag Policy

U.S. farms vary greatly in size, specialty, and household characteristics. U.S. regions differ markedly in natural resource endowments. And States themselves are widely divergent in terms of their preferences as to how funds from agricultural programs should be spent. Given this diversity, can the delivery of agricultural programs be better tailored to distinct State and local circumstances? Devolution, or the transfer to States of Federal funds and/or control of those funds, is one way of adapting national policies to suit local preferences more closely and of recognizing that program delivery costs can vary geographically.
11/3/2004 10:16:00 AM

Amber Waves, November 2004

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS's research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "eZine," includes links to web-only resources.
11/3/2004 10:15:00 AM 49.95/year

The Conservation Reserve Program: Economic Implications for Rural America

This report estimates the impact that high levels of enrollment in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) have had on economic trends in rural counties since the program’s inception in 1985 until today. The results of a growth model and quasi-experimental control group analysis indicate no discernible impact by the CRP on aggregate county population trends. Aggregate employment growth may have slowed in some high-CRP counties, but only temporarily. High levels of CRP enrollment appear to have affected farm-related businesses over the long run, but growth in the number of other nonfarm businesses moderated CRP’s impact on total employment. If CRP contracts had ended in 2001, simulation models suggest that roughly 51 percent of CRP land would have returned to crop production, and that spending on outdoor recreation would decrease by as much as $300 million per year in rural areas. The resulting impacts on employment and income vary widely among regions having similar CRP enrollments, depending upon local economic conditions.
AER-834 112 pp 10/8/2004 10:00:00 AM 33.00

Measuring the Success of Conservation Programs

Amber Waves, September 2004

Have Conservation Compliance Incentives Reduced Soil Erosion?

With the 1985 Food Security Act, farmers are required to engage in conservation activities in order to receive government payments. This article focuses on the soil erosion impacts of "conservation compliance", which requires producers to apply and maintain conservation systems on highly erodible (HEL) cropland that was already in crop production in 1985 or risk losing government farm price and income support. The article finds that following implementation of conservation compliance and other conservation policy changes, soil erosion on U.S. cropland fell significantly.
6/1/2004 1:00:00 PM

Amber Waves, June 2004

Environmental Compliance in U.S. Agricultural Policy: Past Performance and Future Potential

Since 1985, U.S. agricultural producers have been required to practice soil conservation on highly erodible cropland and conserve wetlands as a condition of farm program eligibility. This report discusses the general characteristics of compliance incentives, evaluates their effectiveness in reducing erosion in the program’s current form, and explores the potential for expanding the compliance approach to address nutrient runoff from crop production. While soil erosion has, in fact, been reduced on land subject to Conservation Compliance, erosion is also down on land not subject to Conservation Compliance, indicating the influence of other factors. Analysis to isolate the influence of Conservation Compliance incentives from other factors suggests that about 25 percent of the decline in soil erosion between 1982 and 1997 can be attributed to Conservation Compliance. This report also finds that compliance incentives have likely deterred conversion of noncropped highly erodible land and wetland to cropland, and that a compliance approach could be used effectively to address nutrient runoff from crop production.
AER-832 52 pp 6/1/2004 12:00:00 PM 27.00

Economic and Policy Implications of Wind-Borne Entry of Asian Soybean Rust into the United States

American soybean producers and the research, regulatory, and extension institutions supporting them are preparing for the potential wind-borne entry of Asian soybean rust into the United States. This report examines how the economic impacts of soybean rust establishment will depend on the timing, location, spread, and severity of rust infestation and on how soybean and other crop producers, livestock producers, and consumers of agricultural commodities respond to this new pathogen.
ERSOCS04D02 4/27/2004 10:00:00 AM 23.00

Amber Waves, April 2004

Beyond Environmental Compliance: Stewardship as Good Business

Both crop and animal production generate pollutants that enter the air as well as surface and ground waters. Such pollution is difficult to control, and programs designed to address agricultural pollution have remained largely voluntary. However, growing evidence suggests that good economic performance is compatible with good environmental performance. Recent ERS analysis suggests that agricultural producers can benefit economically by voluntarily adopting environmentally beneficial practices.
4/1/2004 12:00:00 PM

Economics of Sequestering Carbon in the U.S. Agricultural Sector

Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases can be reduced by withdrawing carbon from the atmosphere and sequestering it in soils and biomass. This report analyzes the performance of alternative incentive designs and payment levels if farmers were paid to adopt land uses and management practices that raise soil carbon levels. At payment levels below $10 per metric ton for permanently sequestered carbon, analysis suggests landowners would find it more cost effective to adopt changes in rotations and tillage practices. At higher payment levels, afforestation dominates sequestration activities, mostly through conversion of pastureland. Across payment levels, the economic potential to sequester carbon is much lower than the technical potential reported in soil science studies. The most cost-effective payment design adjusts payment levels to account both for the length of time farmers are willing to commit to sequestration activities and for net sequestration. A 50-percent cost-share for cropland conversion to forestry or grasslands would increase sequestration at low carbon payment levels but not at high payment levels.
TB-1909 69 pp 4/1/2004 27.00

Risk, Government Programs, and the Environment

Financial risk permeates nearly all farm business ventures. In some instances, private and public tools used to manage financial risks in agriculture may influence farmers' production decisions. These decisions, in turn, can influence environmental quality. This bulletin synthesizes several research literatures and provides some perspective on private and public attempts to cope with financial risks and their unintended environmental consequences. Specifically, it examines the conceptual underpinnings of risk-related research, challenges involved with measuring the consequences of risk for agricultural production decisions, government programs that influence the risk and return of farm businesses, and how production decisions influence both the environment and the risk and average returns to farming.
TB-1908 59 pp 3/30/2004 4:15:00 PM 27.00

U.S.-EU Food and Agriculture Comparisons

This report provides information and analysis on a wide range of topics relating to agriculture in the United States and European Union (EU), including comparisons of farm structure, production, agricultural productivity, risk management, environmental, commodity policy, trade, and food consumption, as well as implications of EU enlargement for bilateral relations. The purpose is to provide information to a broad audience seeking to understand key similarities and differences between two of the world's largest agricultural producers and traders and to gain perspective on the issues affecting US-EU relations.
ERSWRS04-04 97 pp 2/27/2004 12:00:00 PM 29.50

Amber Waves, November 2003

Emphasis Shifts in US Agri-environmental Policy

Amber Waves, September 2003

Manure Management for Water Quality: Costs to Animal Feeding Operations of Applying Manure Nutrients to Land

Nutrients from livestock and poultry manure are key sources of water pollution. Ever-growing numbers of animals per farm and per acre have increased the risk of water pollution. New Clean Water Act regulations compel the largest confined animal producers to meet nutrient application standards when applying manure to the land. The additional costs for managing manure have implications for feedgrain producers and consumers as well. This report's farm-level analysis examines onfarm technical choice and producer costs across major U.S. production areas. A regional analysis focuses on off-farm competition for land to spread surplus manure, using the Chesapeake Bay region as a case study. Finally, a sectorwide analysis addresses potential long-term structural adjustments at the national level and ultimate costs to consumers and producers.
AER-824 99 pp 6/20/2003 1:01:00 PM 29.50

Linking Land Quality, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security

As rising populations and incomes increase pressure on land and other resources around the world, agricultural productivity plays an increasingly important role in improving food supplies and food security. This report explores the extent to which land quality and land degradation affect agricultural productivity, how farmers respond to land degradation, and whether land degradation poses a threat to productivity growth and food security in developing regions and around the world.
ERSAER823 63 pp 6/20/2003 1:00:00 PM 27.00

Methyl Bromide Phaseout Proceeds: Users Request Exemptions

Methyl bromide, a widely used fumigant in agriculture, is one of a number of chemicals-including refrigerants such as freon-being phased out of use worldwide under the Montreal Protocol signed by the U.S. and 182 other countries. The Protocol is an international treaty aimed at reducing or eliminating use of chemicals that contribute to the depletion of the atmosphere's ozone layer, which protects the Earth from ultraviolet radiation (UV). Higher levels of UV can increase the incidence of skin cancer and cataracts, suppress the immune system, and damage crops. The phaseout of methyl bromide could mitigate some of these harmful effects, but because methyl bromide is so important to agricultural production, the phaseout could also have some negative effects for producers and consumers.
4/30/2003 12:03:00 PM

Amber Waves, April 2003

Amber Waves presents the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, Amber Waves is issued in print five times a year (February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition, or "e-zine," will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
4/30/2003 12:00:00 PM 49.95/year

U.S. Organic Farming in 2000-2001: Adoption of Certified Systems

U.S. farmland managed under organic systems expanded rapidly throughout the 1990s, and that pace has continued as farmers strive to meet consumer demand in both local and national markets. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) implemented national organic standards on organic production and processing in October 2002, following more than a decade of development. The new uniform standards are expected to facilitate further growth in the organic farm sector. This report updates USDA estimates of land farmed with organic practices for 2000 and 2001, and provides new estimates on the number of certified organic operations in each State.
ERSAIB780 55 pp 4/11/2003 4:01:00 PM 27.00

Amber Waves, February 2003

Amber Waves is a new magazine that presents a window into the broad scope of ERS' research and analysis. The magazine covers the economics of agriculture, food and nutrition, the food industry, trade, rural America, and farm-related environmental topics. Available on the Internet and in print, it will appear five times a year (in February, April, June, September, and November). The Internet edition or ""e-zine"" will change as new material is added between scheduled issues.
2/20/2003 12:31:00 PM 49.95/year

Managing Manure: New Clean Water Act Regulations Create Imperative for Livestock Producers

Nutrients from livestock and poultry manure are key sources of water pollution. Since regulations for livestock and poultry operations under the 1972 Clean Water Act were first developed, operations in general have become more concentrated and specialized. Ever-growing numbers of livestock and poultry per farm and per acre have increased the risk of water pollution. Hog production provides a good example of how economic factors can change animal industry structure and practices. New water quality regulations were put in place to deal with manure management on December 16, 2002.
2/20/2003 12:30:00 PM

Economic and Structural Relationships in U.S. Hog Production

Rapid change in the size and ownership structure of U.S. hog production has created new and varied challenges for the industry. This report describes an industry becoming increasingly concentrated among fewer and larger farms, and becoming more economically efficient. These changes have not come without problems. The increasing market control and power concentrated among packers and large hog operations, and the manure management problem posed by an increasing concentration of hog manure on fewer operations, are paramount concerns. Addressing these concerns through regulations would likely impose economic costs that could be passed on to consumers. In addition, the relative mobility of the hog industry means that regulations could result in significant changes in the location of hog production facilities, with ripple effects in local economies. Balancing environmental and economic interests will challenge policymakers dealing with the implications of structural change in U.S. hog production.
ERSAER818 60 pp 2/20/2003 9:00:00 AM 27.00

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 2003

This report identifies trends in land, water, and biological resources and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and estimates costs and benefits to farmers, consumers, and the government of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land, water and biological resources) and commercial inputs (nutrients, pesticides, seed and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs. The report is available only in electronic format.

Back to AREI home.

ERSAH722 2/14/2003 9:00:00 AM

Farmland Protection: The Role of Public Preferences for Rural Amenities

Investigates the relative importance of preserving different amenities conserved by farmland protection programs. Examines farmland protection program enabling legislation in the 48 contiguous States, and implementation of these programs in five Northeastern States.
ERSAER815 74 pp 11/4/2002 8:00:00 AM 27.00

Soil, Nutrient, and Water Management Systems Used in U.S. Corn Production

Corn production uses over 25 percent of the Nation's cropland and more than 40 percent of the commercial fertilizer applied to crops. Thus, corn farmers' choices of soil, nutrient, and water management systems can have a major impact not only on their own profitability, but also on the environment. If sound economic and environmental choices are to be encouraged, it may help to assess relationships between operator and farm characteristics and the adoption of management techniques by corn farmers. Data from the 1996 Agricultural Resource Management Study (ARMS) of U.S. corn farms and producers are analyzed for this purpose, supplemented by a literature survey on factors that influence corn farm management choices. Relationships were found between certain socioeconomic variables, including farmer age and education and size of the operation, and implementation of management practices. This is the first study to relate corn farm management choices, on a national scale, to so broad a set of characteristics.
ERSAIB774 56 pp 4/19/2002 9:00:00 AM 27.00

Least-cost Management of Nonpoint Source Pollution: Source Reduction Versus Interception Strategies for Controlling Nitrogen Loss in the Mississippi Basin

An ERS Elsewhere file of a journal article published in Ecological Economics.
eejs0207 2/2/2002

Major Uses of Land in the United States, 1997

This report provides land use estimates for major land uses in the United States, by State for 1997.
ERSSB973 60 pp 9/13/2001 9:00:00 AM 27.00

U.S. Organic Farming Emerges in the 1990s: Adoption of Certified Systems

Farmers have been developing organic farming systems in the United States for decades. State and private institutions also began emerging during this period to set organic farming standards and provide third-party verification of label claims, and legislation requiring national standards was passed in the 1990s. More U.S. producers are considering organic farming systems in order to lower input costs, conserve nonrenewable resources, capture high-value markets, and boost farm income. Organic farming systems rely on practices such as cultural and biological pest management, and virtually prohibit synthetic chemicals in crop production and antibiotics or hormones in livestock production. This report updates U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates of land farmed with organic practices during 1992-94 with 1997 estimates, and provides new State- and crop-level detail.
ERSAIB770 28 pp 8/1/2001 4:00:00 PM 23.00

Development at the Urban Fringe and Beyond: Impacts on Agriculture and Rural Land

Land development in the United States is following two routes: expansion of urban areas and large-lot development (greater than 1 acre per house) in rural areas. Urban expansion claimed more than 1 million acres per year between 1960 and 1990, yet is not seen as a threat to most farming, although it may reduce production of some high-value or specialty crops. The consequences of continued large-lot development may be less sanguine, since it consumes much more land per unit of housing than the typical suburb. Controlling growth and planning for it are the domains of State and local governments. The Federal Government may be able to help them in such areas as building capacity to plan and control growth, providing financial incentives for channeling growth in desirable directions, or coordinating local, regional, and State efforts.
ERSAER803 88 pp 7/24/2001 10:00:00 AM 29.50

Confined Animal Production and Manure Nutrients

Census of agriculture data were used to estimate manure nutrient production and the capacity of cropland and pastureland to assimilate nutrients. Most farms (78 percent for nitrogen and 69 percent for phosphorus) have adequate land on which it is physically feasible to apply the manure produced onfarm at agronomic rates. (The costs of applying manure at these rates have not been assessed). Even so, manure that is produced on operations that cannot fully apply it to their own land at agronomic rates accounts for 60 percent of the Nation’s manure nitrogen and 70 percent of the manure phosphorus. In these cases, most counties with farms that produce ""excess"" nutrients have adequate crop acres not associated with animal operations, but within the county, on which it is feasible to spread the manure at agronomic rates. However, barriers to moving manure to other farms need to be studied. About 20 percent of the Nation’s onfarm excess manure nitrogen is produced in counties that have insufficient cropland for its application at agronomic rates (23 percent for phosphorus). For areas without adequate land, alternatives to local land application--such as energy production--will need to be developed.
ERSAIB771 40 pp 7/20/2001 3:00:00 PM 25.50

The Economics of Food Labeling

The Economics of Food Labeling describes the economic rationale behind private food labeling and government regulation of food labeling. It illustrates the application of economic principles through three case studies in which the government has intervened in private market labeling decisions (nutrition content, dolphin-safe tuna, and organic) and two examples in which government intervention has been proposed (country-of-origin and biotech).
eejs0112 6/1/2001

Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project

The U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project was designed to characterize the extent of adoption of nutrient, pest, soil, and water management practices and to assess the factors that affect adoption for a wide range of management strategies across different natural resource regions. The project entailed the administration of a detailed field-level survey to farmers in 12 watersheds in the Nation to gather data on agricultural practices, input use, and natural resource characteristics associated with farming activities. The data were analyzed by the Economic Research Service using a consistent methodological approach with the full set of data to study the constraints associated with the adoption of micronutrients, N-testing, split nitrogen applications, green manure, biological pest controls, pest-resistant varieties, crop rotations, pheromones, scouting, conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, grassed waterways, and irrigation. In addition to the combined-areas analyses, selected areas were chosen for analysis to illustrate the difference in results between aggregate and area-specific models. The unique sample design for the survey was used to explore the importance of field-level natural resource data for evaluating adoption at both the aggregate and watershed levels. Further analyses of the data illustrated how the adoption of specific management practices affects chemical use and crop yields.
ERSAER792 116 pp 2/14/2001 5:00:00 PM 33.00

Agriculture and Ecosystem Restoration in South Florida: Assessing Trade-offs from Water-Retention Development in the Everglades Agricultural Area

The Florida Everglades is widely acclaimed as one of the world's most productive wetland ecosystems. However, decades of land and water development, some of it for agriculture, have seriously degraded native wildlife communities. Agricultural production decisions have contributed to the loss of some ecosystem functions and reduced environmental quality. Policies to restore the Everglades environment will affect the profitability of the farming sector in Florida. Considerable attention has focused on the retention of wet-season water flows in the northern watershed that is currently drained to meet urban and agricultural needs. In this study, a dynamic model of agricultural production, soil loss, and water retention in the Everglades Agricultural Area was developed to assess agricultural impacts under alternative water policy and land acquisition scenarios.
eejs0108 2/1/2001

Agri-Environmental Policy at the Crossroads: Guideposts on a Changing Landscape

Agri-environmental policy is at a crossroads. Over the past 20 years, a wide range of policies addressing the environmental implications of agricultural production have been implemented at the Federal level. Those policies have played an important role in reducing soil erosion, protecting and restoring wetlands, and creating wildlife habitat. However, emerging agri-environmental issues, evolution of farm income support policies, and limits imposed by trade agreements may point toward a rethinking of agri-environmental policy. This report identifies the types of policy tools available and the design features that have improved the effectiveness of current programs. It provides an indepth analysis of one policy tool that may be an important component of a future policy package—agri-environmental payments. The analysis focuses on issues and tradeoffs that policymakers would face in designing a program of agri-environmental payments.
ersaer794 72 pp 1/25/2001 3:00:00 PM 27.00

Land Tenure and the Adoption of Conservation Practices

Does land tenure affect a farmer’s adoption of conservation practices? This is a classic question in economics, and it remains important today. Agricultural Census data show that agricultural land leasing declined from 45 percent of U.S. farmland in 1935 to 35 percent in 1950, but subsequently increased to 41 percent by 1997. The authors use a logit adoption model with data on 941 U.S. corn producers from the 1996 Agricultural Resource Management Study to analyze the influence of land tenure on the adoption of conservation practices. The authors extend previous analyses by distinguishing renters according to lease type and by distinguishing conservation practices according to the timing of costs and benefits.
EEJS0104 11/1/2000

Production Practices for Major Crops in U.S. Agriculture, 1990-97

This report presents information on nutrient and pest management practices, crop residue management, and other general crop management practices in use on U.S. farms. The public has expressed concerns about the possible undesirable effects of contemporary agricultural practices on human health and natural resources. Partly as a response to these concerns, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began collecting information from farmers on their agricultural production practices in 1964. In 1990, through the President’s Water Quality Initiative, the USDA expanded its data collection efforts. The information presented in this report is largely for the 1990’s. Although the information cannot contribute to the science underlying the debate about the effects of agriculture on human health and environmental risk, it can provide information on the use of relevant inputs and production practices that are likely to abate, or to exacerbate, undesirable effects.
ERSSB969 114 pp 9/20/2000 33.00

Farm Resource Regions

ERS recently constructed a new set of regions depicting geographic specialization in production of U.S. farm commodities. ERS will use the new regions to display results of its analyses in a broad array of venues from briefings to publications, our web site, and journal articles. This pamphlet introduces the new ERS Farm Resource Regions, explains their origin and rationale, and serves as a reference for our clients.
ERSAIB760 6 pp 9/12/2000 12:00:00 PM 12.00

Economic and Conservation Tradeoffs of Regulatory Vs. Incentive-Based Water Policy in the Northwest

Water quality, endangered salmon species, and Native American fishing rights have significantly heightened the competition for Columbia and Snake River Basin water resources. A solution to this regional resource conflict is expected to involve a reallocation of water resources from agriculture. This analysis examines both onfarm water conservation and agricultural economic tradeoffs across five broad regulatory and conservation-incentive water policy perspectives for the Pacific Northwest.
EEJS0103 6/1/2000

Irrigation in the American West: Area, Water and Economic Activity

Irrigation is the defining characteristic of crop production in the American West. Irrigated agriculture uses the most freshwater (90 percent) of any economic sector in the West. Surface-water sources such as streams, rivers, and lakes provide 68 percent of withdrawals while the remaining 32 percent are obtained from groundwater sources. According to the 1997 Census of Agriculture, 43 million acres of agricultural land were irrigated in the West, and these lands produced 72 percent of crop sales on only 27 percent of the total harvested crop acreage.
EEJS0004 6/1/2000

Genetically Engineered Crops for Pest Management in U.S. Agriculture

Adoption of genetically engineered crops with traits for pest management has risen dramatically since their commercial introduction in the mid-1990's. The farm-level impacts of such crops on pesticide use, yields, and net returns vary with the crop and technology examined. Adoption of herbicide-tolerant cotton led to significant increases in yields and net returns, but was not associated with significant changes in herbicide use. On the other hand, increases in adoption of herbicide-tolerant soybeans led to small but significant increases in yields, no changes in net returns, and significant decreases in herbicide use. Adoption of Bt cotton in the Southeast significantly increased yields and net returns and significantly reduced insecticide use.
ERSAER786 28 pp 5/1/2000 23.00

An Efficient Cost-Sharing Program to Reduce Nonpoint-Source Contamination: Theory and an Application to Groundwater Contamination

In the 1996 Farm Act the U.S. Congress established the agricultural cost-share program known as the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP). In doing so, Congress recognized the public’s increased concern about agricultural nonpoint-source contamination, and the importance of using cost-sharing programs to reduce this contamination source by encouraging producers to adopt resource-conserving and/or environmentally-beneficial agricultural practices. This paper examines rigorously the economics of cost-sharing improved irrigation technologies to reduce agricultural nonpoint-source contamination.
EEJS0102 4/1/2000

Economic Implications of the Methyl Bromide Phaseout

The pesticide methyl bromide is being phased out internationally under the Montreal Protocol. Methyl bromide has been used for over 50 years to control insect, nematodes, pathogens, and weeds. It is used for soil fumigation before planting many fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, and agricultural nurseries; for post-harvest fumigation of commodities in storage and prior to shipment; and for government-required quarantine treatment to prevent the spread of regulated exotic pests. Many U.S. users are concerned that existing alternatives to methyl bromide will be less effective and cause financial losses. To help mitigate the impacts of the phaseout, USDA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), universities, and private firms are working to develop new alternatives and make them available to methyl bromide users.
ERSAIB756 12 pp 3/1/2000 12.00

Economics of Water Quality Protection from Nonpoint Sources: Theory and Practice

Water quality is a major environmental issue. Pollution from nonpoint sources is the single largest remaining source of water quality impairments in the United States. Agriculture is a major source of several nonpoint-source pollutants, including nutrients, sediment, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural nonpoint pollution reduction policies can be designed to induce producers to change their production practices in ways that improve the environmental and related economic consequences of production. The information necessary to design economically efficient pollution control policies is almost always lacking. Instead, policies can be designed to achieve specific environmental or other similarly related goals at least cost, given transaction costs and any other political, legal, or informational constraints that may exist. This report outlines the economic characteristics of five instruments that can be used to reduce agricultural nonpoint source pollution (economic incentives, standards, education, liability, and research) and discusses empirical research related to the use of these instruments.
ERSAER782 120 pp 12/1/1999 33.00

The Role of Education in Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Policy

Education is often used to provide agricultural producers with information on how to operate more efficiently with current technologies, or with information on profitable new technologies that generate less pollution. When education is successful, it provides a win-win solution where both producers and the environment benefit. While such win-win solutions are attractive, this article describes a simple economic framework to show that education cannot be considered a strong tool for water quality protection.
EEJS0002 11/1/1999

Economic Assessment of the 1999 Drought: Agricultural Impacts Are Severe Locally, but Limited Nationally

While the 1999 drought has had severe financial impacts on agricultural producers in the drought regions, its impact on U.S. agricultural production has been limited. The drought will reduce commodity receipts relative to 1998 by an estimated $1.29 billion. Estimated farm net income losses, including expected yield losses, increases in expenses, and insurance indemnities, will total $1.35 billion, about 3 percent of expected 1999 U.S. net farm income. Drought impacts in areas of the Northeast designated as extreme and severe drought are expected to reduce farmers' net income by nearly $840 million. The regions affected, the crops grown in those regions, the increased use of irrigation, and crop insurance coverage limited the drought's impacts on agriculture nationally. Drought also affects the rural population by reducing water supplies available for human and livestock consumption.
ERSAIB755 20 pp 11/1/1999 23.00

Policy Objectives and Economic Incentives for Controlling Agricultural Sources of Nonpoint Pollution

Agriculture nonpoint source pollution is an important source of water quality impairment in the United States. Nonpoint source pollution has some important physical characteristics that have implications for setting appropriate pollution control objectives and designing incentive-based pollution control policies. Design-based incentives provide a better opportunity for controlling nonpoint pollution than do performance-based incentives. For design-based incentives to be cost-effective, the incentives must induce producers to use variable inputs at appropriate levels, to adopt appropriate management practices, and to make appropriate land use decisions at the extensive margin of production. A review of existing programs suggests that greater program coordination and improved targeting of incentives are needed for further water quality improvements.
EEJS0007 10/1/1999

Pest Management in U.S. Agriculture

This report describes the use of pest management practices, including integrated pest management (IPM), for major field crops and selected fruits and vegetables. The data came chiefly from the 1996 Agricultural Resource Management Study (ARMS) developed by USDA. Because different pest classes may dominate among different crops and regions, requiring different pest management techniques to control them, the extent of adoption of pest management practices varies widely. For example, insects are a major pest class in cotton production, while minor for soybeans. As insect management has a wider variety of nonchemical techniques than weed control, cotton growers are expected to be further ahead on the IPM continuum than soybean producers.
ERSAH717 84 pp 10/1/1999 29.50

Natural Amenities Drive Rural Population Change

Climate, topography, and water area are highly related to rural county population change over the past 25 years. A natural amenities index, derived and discussed here, captures much of this relationship. Average 1970-96 population change in nonmetropolitan counties was 1 percent among counties low on the natural amenities index and 120 percent among counties high on the index. Most retirement counties and recreation counties score in the top quarter of the amenities index. Employment change is also highly related to natural amenities, although more so over the past 25 years than in the current decade. The importance of particular amenities varies by region. In the Midwest, for example, people are drawn to lakes for recreation and retirement, while people are attracted to the West for its varied topography.
ERSAER781 32 pp 10/1/1999 25.50

Economic Valuation of Environmental Benefits and the Targeting of Conservation Programs: The Case of the CRP

The range of environmental problems confronting agriculture has expanded in recent years. As the largest program designed to mitigate the negative environmental effects of agriculture, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has broadened its initial focus on reductions in soil erosion to consider other landscape factors that may also be beneficial. For example, preserving habitats can help protect wildlife, thus leading to more nature-viewing opportunities. This report demonstrates how nonmarket valuation models can be used in targeting conservation programs such as the CRP.
AER-ERSAER778 64 pp 5/1/1999 12:00:00 PM 27.00

Salmon Recovery in the Columbia River Basin: Analysis of Measures Affecting Agriculture

Native salmon runs of the Columbia River basin have declined precipitously in recent decades, prompting the listing of several stocks under the Federal Endangered Species Act. This analysis examines the effects of proposed salmon recovery measures on the Northwest agricultural sector. Primary measures affecting agriculture include modified timing of dam releases, reservoir drawdown, and flow augmentation. Potential adjustments in input cost and supply include increased grain transport costs due to restricted barging along the lower Snake River; higher irrigation pumping costs with increased hydroelectric power rates; and reduced irrigation water diversions in the upper Snake River basin. Input cost and quantity changes are quantified and combined into seven recovery scenarios for analysis.
EEJS0005 4/1/1999

Policy Considerations for Increasing Compatibilities Between Agriculture and Wildlife

Agriculture has received much attention as a source of threat to wild species and habitats. For example, among federally listed threatened or endangered species in the contiguous 48 States, 57 percent are listed, at least in part, due to agricultural development, pesticide use, fertilizer use, or grazing. Recent actions to protect wildlife have resulted in several marked policy shifts for agricultural producers. For example, wolf reintroduction programs explicitly recognize increased threats to livestock and contrast sharply with past policies aimed at eradication.
EEJS0003 4/1/1999

Vertical Coordination in the Pork and Broiler Industries: Implications for Pork and Chicken Products

This report compares current changes in vertical coordination in the U.S. pork industry with past changes in the U.S. broiler industry. Recent changes in the structure of the U.S. pork industry reflect, in many ways, past changes in the broiler industry. Production contracts and vertical integration in the broiler industry facilitated rapid adoption of new technology, improved quality control, assured market outlets for broilers, and provided a steady flow of broilers for processing. Affordable, high-quality chicken products have contributed to continual increases in U.S. chicken consumption, which has surpassed pork and beef on a per capita basis. Incentives for contracting and vertical integration in the pork industry may yield comparable results.
ERSAER777 48 pp 4/1/1999 25.50

Broiler Farms' Organization, Management, and Performance

This study provides a comprehensive view of the organization, management, and financial performance of U.S. broiler farms. Using data from USDA's Agricultural Resource Management Study (ARMS, formerly known as the Farm Costs and Returns Survey), we examine farm size, financial structure, household income, management practices, and spousal participation in decisionmaking. We compare broiler operations with other farming enterprises and their earnings with that of the average U.S. household. Because most of the 7 billion broilers produced in the United States in 1995 were raised under contract, we also explore the use of contracts and the effects of contracting on the broiler sector.
ERSAIB748 48 pp 3/1/1999 25.50

Wetlands and Agriculture: Private Interests and Public Benefits

Society has recently increased the value it places on the services that wetlands provide, including water quality improvements, flood control, wildlife habitat, and recreation. However, owners of wetlands are often unable to profit from these services because the benefits created are freely enjoyed by many. This report examines differences between public and private incentives regarding wetlands. Federal wetland policy has shifted in recent decades--from encouraging wetland conversion to encouraging wetland protection and restoration--in an effort to balance public and private objectives. The report assesses the need for continued wetlands protection policies as the United States approaches achieving the goal of no net loss of wetlands.
ERSAER765 104 pp 9/1/1998 33.00

Agricultural Outlook January/February 1998

Agricultural Outlook was published monthly (except February) by the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The magazine ceased publication with the December 2002 issue.
AO-248 2/1/1998

Agricultural Outlook October 1997

Agricultural Outlook September 1997

Vertical Coordination and Consumer Welfare: The Case of the Pork Industry

Advances in technology have allowed producers to grow in size and produce a large, uniform supply of high-quality hogs at lower costs. At the same time, contractual arrangements and vertical integration between hog producers and packers are replacing open market exchange. Consumers benefit from lower pork production costs and a large supply of high-quality pork products delivered on a consistent basis.
ERSAER753 38 pp 8/1/1997 25.50

Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97

This report identifies trends in land, water, and commercial input use, reports on the condition of natural resources used in the agricultural sector, and describes and assesses public policies that affect conservation and environmental quality in agriculture. Combining data and information, this report examines the complex connections among farming practices, conservation, and the environment, which are increasingly important components in U.S. agriculture and farm policy. The report also examines the economic factors that affect resource use and, when data permit, estimates the costs and benefits (to farmers, consumers, and the government) of meeting conservation and environmental goals. The report takes stock of how natural resources (land and water) and commercial inputs (energy, nutrients, pesticides, and machinery) are used in the agricultural sector; shows how they contribute to environmental quality; and links use and quality to technological change, production practices, and farm programs.

Back to AREI home.

ERSAH712 356 pp 7/1/1997 62.00

Benefits of Safer Drinking Water: The Value of Nitrate Reduction

Nitrates in drinking water, which may come from nitrogen fertilizers applied to crops, are a potential health risk. This report evaluates the potential benefits of reducing human exposure to nitrates in the drinking water supply. In a survey, respondents were asked a series of questions about their willingness to pay for a hypothetical water filter, which would reduce their risk of nitrate exposure. If nitrates in the respondent's drinking water were to exceed the EPA minimum safety standard, they would be willing to pay $45-$60, per household, per month, to reduce nitrates in their drinking water to the minimum safety standard.
ERSAER752 24 pp 6/1/1997 23.00

Agricultural Outlook May 1997

Proceedings of the Third National IPM Symposium/Workshop

The Third National IPM Symposium/Workshop took place in Washington, D.C., from February 27 through March 1, 1996. More than 600 participants from around the country attended the symposium/workshop reflecting a wide spectrum of professional interests including scientists (social, biological, and environmental), agricultural producers, and representatives of agribusiness and non-profit organizations. Two dominant themes provided a unifying focus. ""Putting Customers First"" focused on reaching out to the diverse customer base of USDA programs to identify IPM research and implementation needs. ""Assessing IPM Program Impacts"" addressed how to incorporate economic, environmental, and public health assessment in IPM research and extension activities. Other topics covered included analytical and data needs for pest-management programs, policies for promoting biological and reduced risk alternatives, and overcoming barriers to increased adoption of IPM practices and technologies.
ERSMP1542 312 pp 5/1/1997 58.00

Agricultural Outlook March 1997

Agricultural Outlook January 1997

Agricultural Outlook December 1996

Agricultural Outlook was published monthly (except February) by the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The magazine ceased publication with the December 2002 issue.
AO-236 12/1/1996

Partial Interests in Land: Policy Tools for Resource Use and Conservation

Property rights arise out of law, custom, and the operation of private markets, with important implications for how land and other natural resources are used and conserved. Over the past several years, debate about the nature and scope of property rights has combined with budget concerns and reauthorization of the Farm Bill, the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act to focus public attention on Federal natural resource policy. This report examines the nature of land ownership and the evolving Federal role in land use and conservation, with particular attention to the voluntary acquisition and conveyance of conservation easements and other partial interests in land.
ERSAER744 68 pp 11/29/1996 27.00

Provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996

This report provides an item-by-item description and explanation of the new Act, which will guide agricultural programs from 1996-2000. Signed into law in April, the act makes significant changes in long-standing U.S. agricultural policies. Major changes in U.S. commodity programs are included in the Act's Title I, known as the Agricultural Market Transition Act.
ERSAIB729 164 pp 9/1/1996 41.00

The 1996 Farm Act Increases Market Orientation

The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996, a milestone in U.S. agricultural policy, provides new farm sector law for 1996-2002, fundamentally redesigning income support programs and discontinuing supply management programs for producers of many commodities. This bulletin provides a general overview of major changes related to production agriculture resulting from the commodity provisions, agricultural trade provisions, and conservation provisions of the Act.
ERSAIB726 36 pp 8/1/1996 25.50

Crop Residue Management and Tillage System Trends

A summary of national and regional trends of crop residue management, including tillage systems used on winter wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, and spring and durum wheat. Finds that conservation tillage was used on more than 99 million acres in 1994, about 35 percent of total U.S. planted crop area. Besides conserving soil, crop residue management practices also cut production costs on many farms.
ERSSB930 36 pp 8/1/1996 25.50

Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change: Issues of Longrun Sustainability

Early evaluations of the effects of climate change on agriculture, which did not account for economic adjustments or consider the broader economic and environmental implications of such changes, overestimated the negative effects of climate change. This report, which highlights ERS research, focuses on economic adaptation and concludes there is considerably more sectoral flexibility and adaptability than found in other analyses. The report frames the discussion of economic adjustments within the context of global agricultural environmental sustainability.
ERSAER740 68 pp 6/1/1996 27.00

Exploring Linkages Among Agriculture, Trade, and the Environment: Issues for the Next Century

Many trade and environment issues will confront agriculture over the next several years. This report provides an economic framework to better understand these issues and discusses prior empirical inquiries and findings. Four primary issues are addressed: (1) how will environmental policies affect agricultural trade?; (2) how will agricultural trade liberalization affect environmental quality?; (3) to what extent should there be international harmonization of environmental policies and product standards?; and (4) is there economic justification for using trade measures to protect the environment? This report demonstrates that basic economic paradigms can provide a basis for understanding how trade and the environment interact. The few empirical studies based on these concepts have found many of the linkages between trade and the environment to be weak or the effects small. Trade and environment issues remain important to monitor, however, because economic and environmental relationships and domestic and international policies are continually evolving, and decisionmakers need good information to confirm or disprove the numerous hypotheses that have surfaced in international discussions.
ERSAER738 48 pp 5/1/1996 25.50

The Conservation Reserve Program: Enrollment Statistics for Signup Periods 1-12 and Fiscal Years 1986-93

This report is fifth in an ERS series summarizing CRP participation. Finds that more than 36 million acres were enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) in signup periods 1-12, held during 1986-92. This acreage includes over 23 million commodity program base acres and nearly 2.5 million tree acres. Annual CRP rental payments average about $50 per acre, and annual soil erosion reductions average 19 tons per acre.
ERSSB925 112 pp 11/1/1995 33.00

World Agriculture and Climate Change: Economic Adaptations

Recent studies suggest that possible global increases in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns during the next century will affect world agricul-ture. Because of the ability of farmers to adapt , however, these changes are not likely to imperil world food production. Nevertheless, world production of all goods and services may decline, if climate change is severe enough or if cropland expansion is hindered. Impacts are not equally distributed around the world.
ERSAER703 100 pp 6/1/1995 29.50

Voluntary Incentives for Reducing Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution

Agricultural chemicals and sediment from cropland may reduce the quality of America's surface and ground water resources. The Clean Water Act stipulates that individual States are responsible for controlling agricultural nonpoint source pollution. Most State plans rely chiefly on education and technical assistance to promote the adoption of less polluting practices. Because profitability drives production decisions, these programs tend to be most successful when they promote inexpensive changes in existing practices. This report presents research findings on the success of incentive programs to control agricultural nonpoint source pollution.
ERSAIB716 16 pp 5/1/1995 23.00

Understanding Rural America

The diversity of rural America and the changes it has undergone in the last half century have resulted in a wide variety of economic conditions and needs. This full-color report documents changes in rural employment, population, and well-being for six categories of rural counties: those that depend on farming, manufacturing, and services, and those that have high concentrations of retirees, Federal lands, and poverty.
ERSAIB710 36 pp 2/1/1995 25.50

Benefits of Protecting Rural Water Quality: An Empirical Analysis

Concerns about the impact of farm production on the quality of the Nation's drinking and recreational water resources have risen over the past 10 years. Because point sources of pollution were controlled first, agricultural nonpoint sources have become the Nation's largest remaining single water-quality problem. Both public and private costs of policies that address the conflict between agricultural production and water quality are relevant, but measuring the off-farm benefits and costs of changing water quality is difficult. Many of the values placed on these resources are not measured in traditional ways through market prices. This report explores the use of nonmarket valuation methods to estimate the benefits of protecting or improving rural water quality from agricultural sources of pollution. Two case studies show how these valuation methods can be used to include water-quality benefits estimates in economic analyses of specific policies to prevent or reduce water pollution.
ERSAER701 36 pp 1/1/1995 25.50

EU Nitrate Directive and CAP Reform: Effects on Agricultural Production, Trade, and Residual Soil Nitrogen - By order only

This report presents the results of a study that compared the two policies that could reduce nitrates--The Nitrate Directive and the MacSharry proposal for reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) with a hypothetical fertilizer tax.
ERSFAER255 36 pp 1/1/1995 25.50

Agriculture and the Environment in the European Union - By order only

Examines some of the agriculture-related environmental problems confronting the European Union. Also describes the recent trends of agrichemical use in the EU and regional similarities and differences in environmental concern.
ERSAIB708 24 pp 10/1/1994 23.00

Atrazine: Environmental Characteristics and Economics of Management

Restricting or eliminating the use of atrazine in the Midwest would have important economic consequences for farmers and consumers. Atrazine is an important herbicide in the production of corn and other crops in the United States. Since atrazine is such an important herbicide, mandatory changes in application strategies are likely to generate sizable costs for producers and consumers. However, recent findings indicate that elevated amounts of atrazine are running off fields and entering surface water resources. This report presents the costs and benefits of an atrazine ban, a ban on pre-plant and pre-emergent applications, and a targeted ban to achieve a surface water standard. A complete atrazine ban is hypothesized to be the costliest strategy, while the targeted strategy is the least costly.
ERSAER699 28 pp 9/1/1994 23.00

Environmental Policies: Implications for Agricultural Trade - By order only

This report, consisting of 14 separate articles, analyzes linkages between environmental policies and agricultural trade. Topics covered include a global inventory of environmental policies, the implications of environmental policies on U.S. and world agricultural trade, the implications for environmental policy in the context of multilateral and regional trade negotiations, and the effects of global climate change on agricultural trade.
ERSFAER252 156 pp 6/1/1994 41.00

Estimating Water Quality Benefits: Theoretical and Methodological Issues

Reviews practical approaches and theoretical foundations for estimating the economic value of changes in water quality to recreation, navigation, reservoirs, municipal water treatment and use, and roadside drainage ditches.
ERSTB1808 36 pp 9/1/1992 25.50

For more information, contact: webadmin@ers.usda.gov

Web administration: webadmin@ers.usda.gov