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October 2004
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Contents
Editor's PageAccentuate the ActiveYou may be surprised to learn that there's absolutely nothing wrong with using active voice and first person in JOE articles. In fact, it's recommended. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition (JOE's style manual) says this on page 41:
And, on pages 37 - 38: "Third person: Writing 'The experimenters instructed the participants' when 'the experimenters' refers to yourself is ambiguous and may give the impression that you did not take part in your own study. Instead, use a personal pronoun: 'We instructed the participants.'" The habit of using third person, passive voice is so ingrained and ubiquitous (under the illusion that it conveys "objectivity," I think) that I do not change it in JOE articles. And I do not suggest that you change the habit of a scholarly lifetime if that would prove too difficult. But you might want to try it the next time you are preparing an article for submission to JOE. For those of you who have trouble with JOE's notoriously tight word-count restrictions--think about it--it takes fewer words to use active voice, first person. If you can't bring yourself to use first person, you might at least try active voice. October 2004 JOEThis is another very good issue, with more noteworthy articles than I have time or space to note. So I will focus on two things. First, there's the way the first Commentary, "Scholarship: Shout About it," by Keith Smith, and the first two Tools of the Trade articles, "What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards," by Dan Weigel, Randy Brown, and Sally Martin, and "Communicating Impacts," by Karen Zotz, resonate with each other. Read them, and you'll see what I mean. Second, there's the tremendous contribution made by JOE reviewers. The many of you who have used their insightful reviews to improve your articles know what I'm talking about. So do those of you who have read and learned from all of the Feature, Research in Brief, and Ideas at Work articles in JOE over the years. But there's more. Besides Karen Zotz, four other JOE reviewers have authored or coauthored articles on a variety of topics in the October issue: Viviane Simon-Brown, Kim Greder, Carolyn Dunn, and Joseph Donaldson. I didn't plan it this way, and, of course, others of our reviewers have written articles published in JOE in the past and will continue to do so in the future. But the coincidence of five articles in a single issue has given me the opportunity to publicly thank our reviewers for the work they do on all our behalves. You can find the names of all of our near the bottom of each issue Contents page and at the JOE Peer Reviewers link on the About JOE page. They all deserve our thanks. Laura Hoelscher, Editor
Scholarship: Shout About ItKeith L. Smith, Good Work Is Not EnoughIt's time to shout about your accomplishments. Extension professionals can no longer just "do good work." Our supporters and funding resources demand more from us, in terms of reach, relevance, and efficiency. Land-grant universities need our leadership as they embrace the concept of engagement. We need to more thoroughly adopt a long-recognized and accepted method of "shouting about our work" in university circles: scholarship. Scholarship can be defined in a number of ways. Boyer (1990) identified the steps as Discovery, Integration, Application and Teaching in Scholarship Reconsidered. Elements of scholarship in the Boyer model that particularly relate to Extension include:
As Boyer taught, scholarship is not just about publishing or presenting. It's about engagement and sharing with colleagues. It's about raising the bar and going beyond simply delivering a good program to local clientele. Delivering a successful, targeted program in a county can help hundreds or possibly thousands of local clientele. Now it is our responsibility to take that program and make it national by sharing our success with countless others. One approach to doing this could be a JOE article. What a great benefit to society and taxpayers. What a great benefit to the nationwide network of Extension services. Examples of Extension ScholarshipWe can all think of great examples of scholarship in Extension, or of when a great concept has been shared and then adopted nationwide. One that comes to mind is a collaborative effort among Lydia Medeiros from Ohio State University, Virginia Hillers of Washington State University, and Patricia Kendall of Colorado State University. This team came together and developed a project to improve food safety education. The information distributed has since become the national standard for the safe handling and preparation of foods. Another example comes from Sue Donaldson at the University of Nevada, who developed a wide-reaching curriculum for agricultural educators focused on growing plants and animals on small-acreage farms in areas of environmental sensitivity. In its beginning stage, the project trained 50 educators in eight western states, and since that time Sue has sent out over 900 CD-ROMs of the program to various locations throughout the country. A third example is that of Mike Boehm, an Ohio State University Extension and Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center faculty member, who was assigned to the Biological Defense Research Directorate at the Naval Medical Research Center while serving on active duty. He and his team were responsible for the development and implementation of biological weapons (BW) detection, testing, and training effort for forward-deployed Navy units. By the end of his tour of duty, Boehm's team had reached every Navy unit, ship or shore, that had the potential for action in the Gulf to train them to use tests meant for routine air screening and other suspicious samples. Larger ships were also trained on DNA testing, among other, more sophisticated testing. Numbers Aren't Enough, EitherNobody's better than Extension professionals at developing and implementing strong programs. We do, however, need to improve in how we evaluate and share our successes. We need to think of scholarship in terms of documenting quality. Glassick, Maeroff, and Huber's (1997) book Scholarship Assessed challenges us to look not at how many publications written or how many presentations delivered, but at the characteristics of quality work and how it is documented. Scholarship demands that we evaluate our work. First, we must clearly identify the needs of the people we serve. Once our programming is in place, evaluation is imperative to determine if we've reached the needs, or if additional thought should be given to how we're approaching the issue. Once evaluations show what we're doing is meeting the needs of our clientele and that we're successful, it's time to shout! Shouting About ItWe must define Extension work and university engagement as a part of the core of the university. Engagement is about teaching, research, and service. It is that aspect of the trilogy where the walls of the campus are invisible. As universities grapple to adopt engagement as a key goal, Extension has a clear role in the process through scholarship. And who is more experienced and developed in engagement than Extension? When we define our work in the same terms as other faculty across campus, we are seen as equal partners. This can be accomplished through scholarship. In doing so, we provide a network for "closet" Extension people in other colleges, those who are Extension people at heart. Thus, Extension helps to elevate the university's ability to engage with the community in a broader way. If Extension is going to be a part of the university engagement movement, we must embrace, exemplify, and advocate for teamwork. By partnering across campus, we can meet local community needs more effectively, maximize our impact in communities, and expand our scholarship opportunities. The richness of programming and depth of thought expands when you bring disciplines together. All parties learn and grow from the experience. As more colleges in our universities expand their engagement efforts, they need to see Extension as a partner. They can learn from us, and we can learn from them. Many of these colleges have long histories of community involvement and social activism. Their perspective can enrich what we do. That's a fundamental aspect of scholarship. As an example, the College of the Arts at OSU has a long history of engaging with the community through performances and visual arts exhibits. These performances and exhibits provide a valuable learning experience for students, enhance the arts opportunities for citizens, and serve to foster thought, learning, and expression in the community. The College of Arts' involvement in teacher workshops and industrial partnerships (focused on design) affect selected communities and enhance the quality of their on-campus efforts. By combining the College of the Arts' commitment for community involvement and their knowledge of the arts with Extension's integration into local communities and awareness of local needs, the potential for affecting even more communities is broadly enhanced. By working together, we can enrich the opportunities for youth to engage in the arts through new types of 4-H programs. Through our community development work, we can help villages and towns develop sustainable strategic plans, and by partnering with College of the Arts, we can assist these communities in implementing efforts that focus on enhancing the arts aspect of their community. Scholarship Challenges
The Journal of Extension provides all of us with a tool to embrace scholarship. To celebrate the 10th anniversary of JOE going electronic and the 40th anniversary of this peer-reviewed journal's start, make this the year that you embrace scholarship in the fullest sense of the word. Share your work. You owe it to your colleagues. View reader comments for this Commentary in the JOE Discussion Forum. (This forum is no longer accepting new entries.) ReferencesBoyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Special report. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Glassick, C. E., Huber, M. T., & Maeroff, G. I. (1997). Scholarship assessed: Evaluation of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Integrating Ecology and Relating Natural Systems to Agriculture: An Increased Priority for Extension Agricultural ProgrammingKyle Cecil Society now provides input into issues associated with environmental sustainability in a myriad of industries, including agriculture. Agriculture today exists within a system that encompasses both biological and societal concerns. This is quite different than what the first agriculture agents dealt with in 1914. Extension must now begin to modify its historical educational emphasis from one addressing primarily the production of food to one that addresses the production of food in a system encompassing both the individual's, society's, and environmental goals. Developing farm operators' knowledge and awareness of relationships between farming and natural systems functioning should be an underlying theme of Extension programming in the new century. An agricultural system that can produce not only plentiful, healthful food, but also fully functioning ecosystems should be a goal of Extension outreach and programming efforts. The Changing Context of Agricultural ExtensionExtension has focused its educational efforts on an anthropocentric agricultural production system. That is to say, Extension has historically assisted the farmer in developing farming systems that maximized food production in order to feed a growing population. The focus on production of mass-produced staple commodities has unfortunately brought with it a number of consequences that society now views as unacceptable. These include:
By no means is it implied that agriculture is the only contributor to environmental problems facing today's society. Rural and urban populations each contribute to environmental problems in their own unique way. Agriculture, however, by simple virtue of the amount of land in the world utilized for production of food products, plays a significant role in sustainability of the environment. The fact is, farmers have a major impact on environmental sustainability. Given this long tradition of agriculture-based Extension nationwide, many Extension educators may have a strictly agricultural production background and are perhaps not trained in natural resources management or ecology. Due to the complexities of environmental systems, it is unlikely that an educator with a limited or non-existent training in basic ecosystem management principles will be able to functionally integrate ecosystem management concepts into their Extension outreach efforts. Furthermore, it could be argued that without some degree of immersion into the science of ecology and natural system functioning, the level of scholarly interest in such topics would be lacking. In the search to incorporate more ecological rationale into agricultural production, educators must develop a deeper understanding of the nature of agroecosystems and the principles by which they function.
Agroecosystems are communities of plants and animals interacting with their physical and chemical environments that have been modified by people to produce food, fibre, fuel, and other products for human consumption and processing.
A Need to UnderstandA study of 369 Extension educators in North Carolina showed that survey participants were divided when asked if Extension educators developed programs that emphasized whole-farm agriculture systems (35.9% disagreed, 29.8% undecided, 34.3% agreed) and if agents taught clientele holistic approaches to problem-solving (31.7% disagreed, 35.6% undecided, and 32.8% agreed) (Minarovic & Mueller, 2000). This would indicate that an important step in changing the paradigm of Extension agriculture education would be to gain consensus on the necessity to incorporate agroecological principles into Extension programming. We cannot expect our clientele to incorporate these principles if we are not capable of or are unwilling to teach them. In rapidly changing environments, both organizations and the people who make up those organizations either change with the times or risk becoming obsolete. So, as Extension positions itself to address contemporary issues affecting society, professional staff members will need to engage in lifelong learning in order to maintain professional expertise in relevant areas (Martin, 1991). Extension agricultural staff will need to be able to think differently and acquire a new set of knowledge, skills, and abilities--just as our farm producer clientele will be required to do. The more we understand about agroecology, the better we will be able to impart this new knowledge to clients. American agriculture, in all its parts, desperately needs to develop and implement strategic plans to reposition the industry with respect to the global marketplace and the social and environmental context within which it will operate. In this effort, American agriculture needs the applied research and Extension functions of the land-grant system as never before (Bloome, 1992). A contemporary Extension agricultural program that understands agroecology and believes in the need for a more sustainable production system can lead the way toward a more profitable and environmentally friendly agriculture. View reader comments for this Commentary in the JOE Discussion Forum. (This forum is no longer accepting new entries.) ReferencesAltieri, M. A. (1995). Agroecology: The science of sustainable agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Revised and expanded edition. Bloome, P. D. (1992). Seeking a mature relationship with agriculture. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992spring/tp1.html Martin, D. (1991). Professional growth: A personal journal. Fort Collins: Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Service. Minarovic, R. E., Mueller, J. P. (2000). North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service professionals' attitudes toward sustainable agriculture. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(1). Available on-line at http://www.joe.org/joe/2000february/a1.html Vandermeer, J. (1995). The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Annual Review of Ecological Systems 26: 201-224.
Intelligent Consumption: Addressing Consumer Responsibilities for Natural Resources--and BeyondViviane Simon-Brown Overview
Aldo Leopold was right. At Oregon State University and other land-grant institutions, we focus our educational efforts on teaching students to professionally manage natural resources. However, as population, economic, and consumption pressures increase, addressing the responsibilities of the consumers of natural resources becomes a viable educational tool. Since 1998, the Sustainable Living Project at OSU has been offering intelligent consumption programming to adults and older youth to create an ethical foundation supporting sustainable management of natural resources. Intelligent consumption is about managing ourselves. It acknowledges the role ethics plays in decision-making. Taking a thoughtful approach to understanding cultural, economic, and environmental values; considering the barriers to living sustainably; examining national trends; and determining personal priorities are all necessary elements in educating the public about their consumer choices. In this article, I:
PressuresIn May 2001, the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters and the USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory released the Report of the Intelligent Consumption Project (Strigel & Meine, 2001). The report identified three massive pressures squeezing global forest resources: population, economic growth, and consumption. First, world population is currently at 6 billion and is projected to rise to 11 billion within 100 years. If projected increases in human population hold true, by the end of this century, the area of forest per capita in the world will drop from the currently inadequate 1.5 acres to between 0.7 and 0.8 acres (Strigel & Meine, 2001). In the United States, it will be more than halved, from 2.7 acres to about 1.3 acres (Strigel & Meine, 2001). Second, the World Bank predicts that economic growth in the next 10 years could approach 5% annually in developing countries and 2.8% in industrial countries. The combination of population growth and economic growth will create a worldwide demand for new housing units. Over the next 50 years, that demand is likely to exceed one billion (Strigel & Meine, 2001). The third pressure on forest resources is consumption, with the United States consuming a disproportionate share. U.S. citizens use twice the average for other developed countries and roughly three times that of the world as a whole (Strigel & Meine, 2001). U.S. consumption is higher than that of any other nation on Earth (Strigel & Meine, 2001), leading two researchers to state, "It would require 4 of our Earths for everybody on the planet to live the lifestyle of North Americans" (quoted in Ryan & Durning, 1997). These pressures are not unique to forestry. Similar pressures affect all Extension program areas. And our responses and solutions are also similar. SolutionsForestry's traditional--and crucial--response to the population, economic, and consumption pressures has been to become more efficient. Our educational programs focus on improving silviculture, harvest, utilization, production, management, and delivery methods. But what about the consumers of forest resources? Don't they have responsibilities too? What kind of educational programming can help them make more informed consumer decisions? Two caveats. First, one could assume that to ease pressures on forest resources, one should encourage people to reduce consumption of wood products. This assumption is misleading. The Report of the Intelligent Consumption Project strongly cautions, "Contrary to expectations, the result could be highly adverse to the environment in the U.S. and globally. Reduction of wood consumption, without accompanying success in reducing consumption in general, would likely lead to a number of undesirable consequences..." (Strigel & Meine, 2001). The report cites four negative outcomes:
The second caveat is: to make intelligent consumer decisions, consumers must be cognizant of "the right thing to do," a highly individualistic determination generally arrived at after much thought. In Lawrence Kohlberg's body of work on stages of moral development, intelligent consumption decisions match Stage 6, the highest level: "Follow individual conscience and universal principles even if risk is involved" (Kohlberg, 1984). Ethics-Based EducationEthics-based education is all about managing ourselves. It creates a philosophical foundation to support decision-making on all levels. It acknowledges that personal values, ethics, and beliefs powerfully influence decisions and actions. (The take-home message for natural resource managers is "To understand environmental facts you have to understand your own values and the values of others" [Smith & Gilden, 2000]). Self-aware people consciously align--and articulate--personal, professional, and constitutional values (Figure 1.) These values are intertwined, underpinning everything an individual does. They tell the world who she or he is and how she or he goes about his or her business (Simon-Brown, 1999). Figure 1.
An ethics-based curriculum helps students determine personal values, ethics and facts. These are defined by Smith and Gilden (2000) as follows.
An example of an Extension program that evolved into an ethics-based education program is the Sustainable Living Project at OSU. The Sustainable Living Project at OSUFalse Start: Focus on Information TransferIn 1998, the Sustainable Living Project quietly began at Oregon State University. The project's mission, to reduce environmental degradation and improve quality of life in the Pacific Northwest by fostering new consumption patterns and promoting sustainable lifestyles, targeted mainstream adults and older youth. The project defines sustainable living as "A life that is deeply satisfying, fulfilling and appealing, and at the same time, environmentally responsible" (Simon-Brown, 1998). Original efforts focused on a "one-stop shopping" approach. I provided research-based information on a variety of traditional Extension topics, such as energy conservation and usage, financial management, consumer products, healthy foods, and gardening. It didn't work. Traditional Extension audiences considered the service to be redundant; new audiences didn't engage. The decision point came when a mall shopper stopped at my booth during a Home Show. "Why should I care about this stuff? What's in it for me?" Clearly, I was offering answers to questions that my audience hadn't yet asked themselves. At about the same time, I read Yearning for Balance: Views of Americans on Consumption, Materialism, and the Environment (The Harwood Group for Merck Family Fund 1995). The report enumerates four key findings:
These non-scientific-sounding findings reflect a society at odds with its values. To move Americans from ambivalence to action, the Sustainable Living Project needed to help people think through their personal values and beliefs. New Focus: Identify Individual Values and BeliefsOur approach to the project mission changed to: help mainstream adults and older youth make informed consumer decisions by thoughtfully and consciously examining the cultural, economic and environmental aspects of our American lifestyle. In short, participants identify their own Sustainability Triangle of Values. Figure 2.
Now, the Sustainable Living workshops:
Neutrality is the most essential quality for the instructor to exhibit Πand its importance can't be overstated. Each participant arrives with a lifetime of values and beliefs. It is not the instructor's role to change them or to advocate certain philosophies. It is up to the participants to discover what they believe to be their most important cultural, economic and environmental values. The instructor facilitates that process by using time-honored Extension techniques: asking questions, role-playing, large and small group conversations, readings, and individual journaling. Since refocusing the project in 1999, more than 5,000 people have participated in workshops and presentations, and over 150,000 people have browsed the Web site <http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/extended/sustain/>. An overdue formal evaluation and assessment of the project is scheduled for this year. In 2002, I informally called 25 participants from the 2000 and 2001 workshops to ask 1) if their Sustainability Triangle was displayed and 2) if they used the Sustainability Triangle in decision-making. Twenty-three (92%) said that their Sustainability Triangle was prominently displayed (usually on the refrigerator) and that they consulted it often. Twenty-one (84%) said they had used it in making major family decisions (buying or selling a vehicle or house.) Several ex-participants volunteered that, as a result of the workshops, their families had reduced energy consumption, changed eating and spending habits, and reduced the number of arguments with their teenagers! Why the Time Is Right: Implications for ExtensionGlobal, national, and regional trends underscore the timeliness of such an ethics-based education effort. According to the World Future Society (Outlook 99, 1998), the following trends affect sustainability of natural resources.
America is in the midst of a meta-transition. Time and quality of life are becoming relatively more important than money. Sixty-six percent of Americans say they want more balance in their lives. Sixty percent want to simplify their lives (Schor, 1998). The voluntary simplicity movement, which approximately 35 to 40 million Americans espouse, is moving from the early adopter phase to the early majority phase. Figure 3.
(One sure proof that the concept has become mainstream is the proliferation of commercials by car, banking, and soft drink companies exhorting consumers to simplify their lives--by buying their products.) Intelligent consumption is applicable to more than just natural resources Extension program areas such as Forestry, Agriculture and Sea Grant. A quick brainstorm list of programs that could be augmented and enhanced include:
Each topic includes aspects of intelligent consumption. Each involves cultural, economic, and environmental values. Incorporating and highlighting the ethical components could be the "grabber" that fully engages the clientele. ConclusionOregon State University--like other land-grant institutions--has a long tradition of educating people to manage natural resources. The Sustainable Living Project focuses on education to manage ourselves, by asking ethics-based questions about intelligent consumption and quality of life. Extension professionals may find it creates an ethical bridge between consumers of natural resources and the sustainable management of natural resources. References1998-99 world resources: A guide to the global environment. (1998). A Report by World Resources Institute, UNEP, UNDP, and The World Bank. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Flader, S. L., & Caldecott, J. B. (Eds.) (1991). River of the mother of God and other essays by Aldo Leopold. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Kohlberg, L. (1984). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. HarperCollins. Oregon benchmarks: Standards for measuring statewide progress and government performance. (1998). Oregon Progress Board. Salem, Oregon. Oregon values and beliefs. (1998). Oregon Business Council. Salem, Oregon. Outlook 99. (1998). The Futurist. 32(9). Ryan, J. C., & Durning, A. T. (1997). Stuff: The secret lives of everyday things. Seattle: Northwest Environment Watch. Schor, J. (1998). The overspent American: Upscaling, downshifting, and the new consumer. New York: Basic Books. Simon-Brown, V. (1999). Choosing your group's structure, mission, and goals. Corvallis: Oregon State University. EC 1507. Available at: http://seagrant.oregonstate.edu/sgpubs/onlinepubs/EC1507.html Simon-Brown, V. (1998). The sustainable living project at OSU. Available at: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/extended/sustain/ Smith, C., & Gilden, J. (2000). Values: The lens through which we view reality. Corvallis: Oregon State University. Strigel, M., & Meine, C., editors. (2001). Report of the intelligent consumption project. Madison, Wisconsin. Available at: http://wisconsinacademy.org/programs/icp/report.html Yearning for balance: Views of Americans on consumption, materialism, and the environment. (1995). Merck Family Fund. Takoma Park, Maryland.
Strengthening Environmental Policy Education Through Qualitative Research: Experience with Pennsylvania's Nutrient Management Act Regulatory ReviewAlyssa Dodd Charles Abdalla Penn State Cooperative Extension IntroductionEnvironmental protection is one of the most critical and complex issues our nation faces. Many audiences--farmers, local governmental officials, watershed organizations, and concerned citizens--have questions about rapidly changing environmental policies. Extension has the opportunity to provide timely issues-oriented policy education programs "where people learn about public issues, policy-making processes, and opportunities for involvement and influence" (Hahn, 1990). While educational opportunities exist, environmental policy education is challenging from both a content and educational process perspective. The issues are dynamic and complex. Educators are challenged with enhancing understanding and providing balanced information to diverse audiences. Additional challenges include transferring time-sensitive information and motivating individuals and groups to participate in decision-making. Through our experiences in Pennsylvania, we have identified several "ingredients" we believe are essential to a "recipe of success." These include:
A recently completed project documenting the views of Pennsylvania nutrient management policy stakeholders illustrates the importance of these "ingredients" in environmental policy education. This article introduces the Pennsylvania Nutrient Management Act and the window of opportunity that presented itself to provide timely and useful public policy information to key influential stakeholders and decision makers. It describes the qualitative research methods used to document stakeholder views, presents key findings, and summarizes the demand for and use of the report. Finally, the article concludes with practical advice for Extension educators working on environmental or related natural resources policy issues. BackgroundThe Pennsylvania Nutrient Management Act (Act 6) was passed in 1993 and took effect in 1997. The Act requires all "concentrated animal operations" (CAOs) to develop and implement a state-approved nutrient management plan. A CAO is any animal production operation with more than 2,000 pounds of live weight per acre of land available to spread manure. The State Conservation Commission is responsible for implementing and enforcing Act 6. The Commission relies on the Nutrient Management Advisory Board, a 15-member board established under the Act, to review and comment on regulations (Beegle, Lanyon, & Lingenfelter, 2001). Almost all of the 67 county conservation districts have accepted local program implementation responsibilities. In 2002, the Commission began its required 5-year review of the density-based criteria for defining CAOs. The review has expanded to include an overall update of the regulations. Currently, policy discussions are underway, and changes to the Nutrient Management Act regulations are likely to occur in 2004. A decade after passage of the Nutrient Management, the regulatory revision process provides an opportunity to provide timely and useful public policy information to stakeholders and decision makers. The Nutrient Management Act revisions will affect almost 1,000 CAO and over 800 volunteer (non-CAO) livestock and poultry operations with approved Act 6 nutrient management plans. The changes will also provide environmental benefits for Pennsylvania citizens. Extension's RolePenn State Cooperative Extension is actively involved in nutrient and water policy education. Historically, Extension has focused on providing technical nutrient management expertise during the policy development process. Extension specialists trained in soil science, agricultural engineering, and animal production continue to contribute in this important role. However, Extension's role has expanded over time to include specialists trained in the social sciences, providing public policy information to stakeholders and decision makers beyond traditional agricultural audiences. Since late 2000, administrative leadership within Penn State Cooperative Extension has increased its capacity in this program area by hiring one full-time, fixed-term Extension associate (the lead author) for a period of 3 years to explore programming in this area. Additionally, one full-time, permanent Extension specialist (the co-author) devotes time to the agricultural environmental public policy programming area. Our commitment to maintain a presence within the state-level nutrient and water policy arena led to identifying the opportunity to provide timely public policy education. Extension was aware that the process to update the Pennsylvania Nutrient Management Act regulations was underway and was present during state-level policy discussions where diverse stakeholder perspectives were shared. Once the window of educational opportunity was identified, we organized quickly to document stakeholder perspectives, with the goal of providing a balanced educational resource that would lead to more informed policy discussions. MethodologyQualitative research methods were used to document diverse perspectives, issues, and solutions related to nutrient management policy in Pennsylvania. Data were gathered through key informant stakeholder interviews. Several documents were used to create a semi-structured interview survey: the Pennsylvania Nutrient Management Act and its rules, the Pennsylvania Nutrient Management Program manual, and proceedings from legislative hearings held during the spring of 2001. All questions were open-ended. Extension's presence within the state-level nutrient and water policy arena made it possible to identify key informant interviewees. Key informants were identified on the basis of their involvement in current nutrient and water policy discussions or the stakeholder organization they represent. Additional interviewees were contacted through "snowball sampling," a technique where each key informant was asked to identify other knowledgeable individuals to interview. Snowball sampling is appropriate when a study is primarily explorative, qualitative and descriptive (Atkinson & Flint, 2001). Special emphasis was placed on documenting diverse interests in nutrient management policy to support a balanced educational approach. Individuals represented the perspectives of farmers, agribusiness, agricultural consultants, government agencies, environmental interest groups, public interest groups, and educators. Twenty-eight personal interviews (22 in person, 6 phone) were conducted in July and August of 2002. Interviews took no more than 90 minutes. Interviewees were assured that all responses would remain confidential and that no ideas or perspectives would be attributed to specific stakeholders. Because of the potentially controversial nature of the subject matter, responses were recorded in writing by the interviewer instead of with a tape-recorder. While there may have been some loss of data, we believe the approach created a more comfortable informal interview, allowing greater information exchange. In most cases, the authors interviewed respondents as a team, with one responsible for note-taking. We believe four major factors increased interviewee participation.
Stakeholder responses were assembled and analyzed. Steps in the time-intensive analysis included compiling all responses to specific questions; identifying key phrases, words, and concepts; and summarizing emerging themes. As themes emerged, the information or views obtained were not attributed to specific stakeholder groups. To ensure perspectives and ideas were appropriately documented and to emphasize the importance of each stakeholders view, all interviewees were asked to review the draft research findings. Several interviewees provided written comments on the draft report. Interviewees not responding in writing were contacted via e-mail and/or telephone to ensure the draft report was received and to document additional comments. Key FindingsKey informant interviewee responses provides insight into nutrient management policy challenges, identifies key indicators of program performance and success, offers broad conclusions about nutrient management policy-making in the state, and identifies future policy directions. While we strove to include representatives of stakeholders to nutrient management issues, we were not able to be exhaustive in terms of including all possible groups and individuals. However, due to the number and diversity of interviews, we believe the findings are comprehensive and balanced from a statewide perspective. Key findings include the following.
BenefitsHard copies of the report, Nutrient Management Policy: Pennsylvania Stakeholder Views About Progress, Challenges, and Future Directions (Abdalla & Dodd, 2002), were distributed to over 100 stakeholders. The publication was also made available on the Internet at Penn State Cooperative Extension's Nutrient and Water Policy Web site <http://agenvpolicy.aers.psu.edu>. A Web statistics program, WebTrends, provides detailed information on the number of people who access the Web site and download the publication. Between December 2002 and May 2003, the report was downloaded more than 2,000 times. State-level Extension educators have formally presented the qualitative research findings to the Nutrient Management Advisory Board, the State Conservation Commission, and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection's Chesapeake Bay Advisory Committee. The project highlighted Extension's commitment to agricultural and environmental public policy education and increased visibility and political support. For example, the State Conservation Commission invited Extension to present the Stakeholders Views report at four Nutrient Management Planner meetings held around the state. More than 225 nutrient management planners, county conservation district staff, farmers, and government agency staff attended. Several key agency members provided unsolicited feedback on Extension's involvement and contribution to the meetings, demonstrating an increase in political support. As a result of impact from this project and other nutrient and water policy programming efforts, the Penn State Cooperative Extension administration has extended the Extension associate position to mid-2004. ConclusionPenn State Cooperative Extension's commitment to balanced public policy education approaches that meet the needs of diverse audiences, to maintain a presence within the state-level nutrient and water policy arena and to build trust between Extension and diverse stakeholders has proven useful in identifying and exploiting opportunities for timely public policy education. The use of qualitative research methods to document nutrient management stakeholder views was instrumental in creating a useful educational resource that resulted in more informed policy discussions. Our educational philosophy is that improvements in policy come about through exchange of facts and perspectives about issues and solutions and effective participation by all interested and affected parties and when public decision makers carefully consider this input. Extension, as demonstrated in Pennsylvania, has an opportunity to facilitate this exchange, participation, and informed decision-making. For Extension educators in other states looking to become involved in nutrient and water policy education we suggest the following.
ReferencesAbdalla, C., & Dodd, A. (2002). Nutrient management policy: Pennsylvania stakeholder views about progress, challenges, and future directions. Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Penn State University. Available at: http://agenvpolicy.aers.psu.edu/Documents/NMAstakeholderviews.pdf Atkinson, R., & Flint, J. (2001). Accessing hidden and hard-to-reach populations: Snowball research strategies. Social Research Update [On-line], 33. Available at: http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/sru/SRU33.html Beegle, D., Lanyon L. E., & Lingenfelter, D. D. (2001). Agronomy facts #40: Nutrient management legislation in Pennsylvania: A summary of the regulations, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences. Department of Crops and Soil Sciences, Penn State University. Available at: http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uc111.pdf Barrows, R. (1993). Public policy education. North Central Regional Extension Publication No. 203. Favero, P., & Abdalla, C. W. (1997). Creating workable implementation rules to meet the complexities of manure management: Pennsylvania's nutrient management law. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 52(5), 320-322. Hahn, A. J. (1990). Issues-oriented public policy education. Journal of Extension [On-line], 28(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990spring/a3.html The Nutrient Management Act, title 3, Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, sections 1701-1717 (2002).
A Training Program for Cooperative Extension Agents: Implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Virginia Public SchoolsDini M. Miller Program ConceptSchool administrators face tough questions from parents, students, and staff about pesticide use in and around school buildings. While many school administrators are reluctant to acknowledge that children may be exposed to pests at school, they are often more reluctant to discuss the issue of pesticide use because of the potential liability associated with exposure complaints. However, there is a philosophy of pest control for the school environment that eliminates both the real and perceived hazards of managing pests; it is Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (Greene & Breisch, 2002; Koehler & Scherer, 2002). Integrated Pest Management is a process for achieving long-term, environmentally sound pest suppression through the use of a variety of least toxic management practices. Control strategies in an IPM program extend beyond chemical remedies to include structural and procedural modifications to reduce pest access and pest resources such as food, water, and harborage (U.S. EPA, 1993). The following four practices are applied simultaneously to manage pest populations within the school environment.
There is a national movement to reduce childhood pesticide exposure. For this reason, School IPM as an alternative means of pest control is receiving federal attention (McKenna, 2001). Currently, there is a bill before Congress, the School Environment Protection Act 2003 (SEPA; H.R.121, 2003), which proposes to regulate pesticide use in locations (schools) where children might be exposed (Anonymous, 2003). Several states already have mandatory School IPM programs, e.g., Texas, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia (McKenna, 2001). However, many states are apprehensive about a mandated program because the school districts will not be provided with additional funds to learn about pesticide alternatives (IPM training). For this reason, many states are trying to avoid mandates by proactively establishing volunteer school IPM programs, e.g., California, Georgia, and North Carolina). Several volunteer programs have achieved great success by using the infrastructure of the Cooperative Extension Service and state universities to provide IPM education and technical support to the local school districts (Florida, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina). This support facilitates the schools' transition from a monthly pesticide application schedule to a pest management program based on education and prevention (Koehler, Fasulo, & Scherer, 2002; Koehler & Scherer, 2002). In July 2000, a pilot School IPM training program was launched in Virginia Cooperative Extension Planning District-4 (Montgomery, Giles, Pulaski, and Floyd counties and the City of Radford). The program focused on hands-on IPM training for Extension agents, their local school facilities managers, and contract pest control operators. The pilot program resulted in Montgomery County Public Schools (22 schools and 9,059 students) adopting an IPM program and implementing it with their contract pest control company (Miller, 2003). Montgomery is the largest school district in Planning District 4 and has been influential in leading other districts to adopt IPM. The success of the pilot program resulted in funds from the Virginia Pesticide Control Board (Virginia Department of Agriculture) to expand the School IPM training to additional public schools throughout the state. However, statewide expansion of the School IPM program required widespread promotion to hundreds of school employees and pest control operators throughout Virginia. Therefore, it was logical that the expansion of the School IPM program be facilitated through the infrastructure of Virginia Cooperative Extension. Agriculture and Natural Resource (ANR) agents were thought to be ideal for promoting and delivering the School IPM program for a number of reasons. Most ANR agents have established relationships with both the school administrators and the pest control operators in their counties. Many of these agents have been providing regular pesticide applicator training and environmental education as part of their Extension mission. However, most ANR agents in Virginia are only marginally familiar with indoor pest management techniques and have had no training in School IPM. Our goal was to provide this training so that we could use the Virginia Cooperative Extension network to promote the adoption of School IPM in Virginia. Training Objectives
IPM Training ProceduresA 2-day in-service training was presented to ANR agents in a public school facility. During this training, the county agents were taught how to promote and deliver a School IPM training program to their local schools. As part of the training, agents were given an overview of current pest control practices in Virginia schools and supplied with a copy of Integrated Pest Management in Schools 2000 (Long & Kramer, 2000, unpublished), a report funded by the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (VDACS) in 2000. This report documented three major areas of concern regarding Virginia school pest control practices:
Introduction to IPMAs an introduction to the IPM program, we discussed with the agents how poor pest management practices leave school children vulnerable to accidental pesticide exposure and schools vulnerable to litigation. Agents were next familiarized with the methods of pest prevention used in an IPM program and how proper record-keeping coupled with pest prevention could eliminate needless applications of pesticide and potential exposure risk. The agents were provided with all introductory information in a notebook so they could return to their local school administrators and promote the IPM program. Agents were also provided with PowerPoint training presentations that could be used for teaching IPM techniques. The presentations were explained in detail at the in-service so that the agents had a full understanding of the concepts presented: pest prevention, pest monitoring, reduced toxicity pest control methods, and how to keep records of pesticide applications and pest problems. Agents were encouraged to incorporate their own ideas and experiences into these School IPM presentations. Part of the introductory training was presented by the Montgomery County Extension agent who took part in the pilot School IPM program. The agent discussed his experience working with the public school system and how he worked with the school facilities engineer to promote the adoption of an IPM program. The agent shared the pesticide safety training program he developed for school grounds maintenance personnel and related how he was able to provide the schools with the pesticide safety training they needed for state certification and compliance with state law. The Facilities Engineer for Montgomery County schools was also invited to the in-service training to discuss his experience with the implementation of School IPM. The Facilities Engineer was able to address some of the questions that agents would receive from their local schools about developing an IPM pest control contract, selecting a pest control company, and how much an IPM program was going to cost. Hands-On IPM TrainingAgents participated in hands-on exercises to learn IPM techniques for specific school pests (cockroaches, ants, and rodents). The agents practiced monitoring for cockroaches in the school kitchen. They learned where and why sticky traps are placed in locations that are appealing to cockroaches and how to interpret trap catch for precision placement of cockroach baits. They also learned how to place cockroach baits so that they are accessible to the cockroaches but not to children and staff. Agents were also taught how to monitor for ants around school buildings and ant baiting techniques. Another portion of the technical pest management training involved agents touring the school facility and learning to identify potential rodent entry points and how these locations could be modified to prevent rodent invasion. Finally, the agents returned to the classroom to discuss how to teach these techniques to school personnel and pest management professionals. Promoting the School IPM ProgramThis portion of the workshop focused on the sequence of events that lead up to the IPM training session for school personnel. The agents began by identifying administrators and facilities managers who manage or supervise the pest control contract. In the rural school districts the superintendent or assistant superintendent typically oversees the district's pest control. However, in large urban districts pest control is supervised by facilities or grounds personnel. Therefore, we discussed how to best promote IPM to these different individuals. Agents also engaged in a round table discussion about how to initiate IPM training for their local school district(s). The agents were provided with materials to assess and promote proper pest management practices in schools. Each agent was provided with a sample survey for documenting their local district's current pest control practices. They were also given a sample IPM policy statement, a School IPM pest control contract, and forms for recording pesticide applications on school grounds. These promotional materials, as well as an electronic slide presentation of IPM techniques for controlling cockroaches, ants, and rodents on school grounds, were provided for the agents to take to their local school board so they might generate interest in the IPM program. It was our intention that after the School IPM training the Extension agents would return to their counties and begin working with the schools, introducing them to the School IPM concepts. Agents would have a complete introduction to the School IPM program and hands-on experience in using IPM techniques to monitor and control urban pests. Each agent would also be armed with a protocol for initiating a School IPM program in his or her school district(s) and a packaged IPM training program, complete with literature and electronic slide presentations. The intended impact of this training program was to produce Extension agents who were trained to guide their school districts through the IPM implementation process. Our ultimate goal was to have these local schools adopt IPM and replace calendar-based applications of insecticide with an IPM program based on pest prevention and reduced pesticide use. Measuring Training ImpactsTo measure the impact of the agent training we continued to communicate with the agents after they returned to their counties. We kept a record of those agents who scheduled a School IPM program in their district and of course met with them face to face at the actual training sessions. In addition, we recorded the number of school districts that adopted an IPM program. Adoption of an IPM program was defined as rewriting the pest control contract to specify the use of IPM techniques to control pests or, if pest control was done inŒhouse, that the plan of work was rewritten to specify the use of IPM techniques. Impacts of the Agent Training School IPM ProgramExtension Agent Short-Term Knowledge and Attitude ChangeParticipants in the School Integrated Pest Management program were examined after the IPM training to see how much of the IPM information they had understood and retained. In addition, the agents were surveyed to determine if they had received enough information and training materials to successfully promote an IPM program in their local schools. The School IPM examination covered specific pest management techniques for cockroaches, rodents, and ants, as well as conceptual ideas such as the basis of IPM (pest prevention) and the use of the term "integrated" (controlling pest by using several techniques at the same time). Sixteen agents took the exam, and the average score on the post IPM training examination was 96%. Listed below are the quantitative responses to the School IPM Training Evaluation Survey (8 questions total; 16 respondents).
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in pursuing an IPM program in their local schools based on the IPM training. Rankings were 1-5, with 1 = very willing and 5 = not willing. Fifty percent of responded with a 1; 31% responded with a 2; and 19% responded with a 3. The qualitative responses were related to what the respondents found the most/least useful about the workshop and what additional topics they thought should be included in future training sessions. Because our program focused on indoor pest control, several agents requested that outdoor weed control be included in the IPM information. There were also several requests for more information on wasp and bee control. We received only three responses to the "least useful" question. All three mentioned the redundancy of some of the IPM information. Respondents listed the take-home presentations on CD and the hands-on laboratory sessions as the "most useful" portions of the workshop. Note: A CD-ROM covering IPM on Virginia school grounds has been funded by the EPA (2003) and is currently in development. Wasp and bee control information was added to the program in 2003 and is available on the Virginia School IPM Web site <http://schoolipm.ento.vt.edu>. Long-Term Cultural and Practice ChangeAt the time of this writing, 12 of the agent participants in the School IPM training have successfully promoted and hosted School IPM workshops (full day) within their local school district(s). These programs have been presented to school administrators, facilities personnel, and pest control contractors. As of 2003, 1 year since the statewide expansion of the school IPM program, eight public school districts and one private school district have adopted School IPM, thus reducing their pesticide use and improving the environmental quality of their facilities. Table 1 indicates the number of structures and people that have benefited from adopting the IPM program.
Additional Impacts of School IPM Agent TrainingDue to the efforts of the Montgomery county Extension agent in the pilot School IPM program, Montgomery County Public Schools and the Virginia School IPM program was cited as a model and a "catalyst for change" in Safer Schools: Achieving a Healthy Learning Environment with Integrated Pest Management, a national publication published by the School Pesticide Reform Coalition and Beyond Pesticides organization in 2003. The article included a full-page description of our IPM implementation strategies, with details on the pest-monitoring program and how to keep pesticide application records. Discussion of Agent TrainingIn Virginia, pest control issues fall under the purview of the Agriculture and Natural Resource Extension agents. These agents deal predominantly with outdoor or agricultural insect pests. In fact, ANR agents are almost exclusively from a livestock or crop management background, but there are a growing number of ANR agents specializing in horticulture or weed science. However, there are currently no agents who specialize in indoor or urban pest management in Virginia. Our challenge was to generate enough interest in indoor pest management and provide enough training to make the ANR agents comfortable with promoting the School IPM program. To do this we took a learner-centered approach where the agents were engaged in the educational process and assisted in developing the program content (based on a core curriculum) and activities that were to be presented to their local school districts. Also, each of the agents was expected to take an active role in delivering a portion of School IPM training when they scheduled training for their local schools. We found that the 2-day in-service training at a school facility was a successful venue for conveying the School IPM program to the ANR agents. School IPM is a complex program with a number of detailed concepts and technical methodologies. Giving inexperienced agents the time to focus on learning a completely new set of concepts and skills required the removal of situational, institutional, and informational barriers. The overnight in-service training removed agents from their busy schedules and offices so that they were able to be fully engaged in the learning process. Training at an actual school allowed the agents to visualize how the IPM practices would be applied. Finally, the School IPM information was provided in increments with extended periods for discussion and hands-on activities to encourage participation and learning. The results of the agent training speak for themselves. The impacts of the program have been positive, with at least half of the agent participants promoting and hosting a School IPM program within a year of their own training. The post-training examination and program evaluation indicators also suggested that the agents had learned the material presented and were comfortable enough with it to promote School IPM on their own. The development and promotion of any large-scale Extension program can be difficult, even when many of the agents are familiar with the subject area. However, we were able to determine from this School IPM program that with an appropriate amount of time and training, county agents can learn, promote, and contribute to complex programs that are outside their area of expertise. This ability to train Extension personnel how to promote and deliver novel programs is particularly important for preparing local stake holders to cope with potential federal mandates like School IPM. ReferencesAnonymous. (2003). News update: How will the new congress impact PCOs in 2003?. Pest Control Technology. 31: 14, 23-24. Greene, A., & Breisch, N. L. (2002). Optimizing IPM for public buildings. Pest Control Technology. 30: 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42. Koehler, P. G., & Scherer, C. (2002). University of Florida School IPM training manual. University of Florida. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Gainesville, Florida. Koehler, P.G., Fasulo, T. R., & Scherer, C. (2002). School IPM--Readin, Writin' and Riddin' of Bugs. Available at: http://schoolipm.ifas.ufl.edu/ Long, C., & Kramer, R. D. (2000). Report--Research services to evaluate Integrated Pest Management in Virginia's schools. McKenna, L. (2001). Don't miss the bus. Pest Control Technology. 29: 23, 26, 28, 30-31, 33-34. Miller, D. M. (2003). Virginia School IPM (Integrated Pest Management). Available at: http://schoolipm.ento.vt.edu United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1993). Pest control in the school environment: adopting Integrated Pest Management. EPA Publication No. 735-F-93-012. Office of Pesticide Programs. Washington. D. C. U. S. Government Printing Office. 43 pp.
Entertainment Media Violence: Roles for Extension ProfessionalsKimberly Greder Amina Charania Iowa State University
Do the above statistics present cause for alarm? Why are these acts occurring? What can Extension professionals, parents, and other adults do to lessen this violence? This article highlights research findings related to entertainment media violence, the process used to develop and evaluate a national satellite series on this topic, and practical applications for Extension educators. The Impact of Entertainment Media Violence on Children and Families, a national satellite series produced in 2001 by Iowa State University Extension, is a form of scholarship that demonstrates land-grant universities' ability to be responsive to societal needs (Norman, 2001). Violence in America: Whose Responsibility Is It?Violence has historically played a role in entertainment. However, there's growing consensus that media violence has become more frequent, graphic, sexual, and sadistic <http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/index.cfm>. Parents blame network television, movie, and videogame producers, and they in return blame parents. Media producers say they produce what Americans say that they want, that they are practicing freedom of expression, that it is parents' responsibility to know what their children are viewing, and that the research on entertainment media violence has flaws. Politicians have become more familiar with the research on this subject, are concerned about the potential negative effects, and are putting more regulations in place (McCain, 2000). However, regulations will only be meaningful if they are enforced--at the store and at home. Violence in Entertainment Media: What Does the Research Say?Violence in television programs and movies and its impact on children and families is not a new topic. Thirty years ago, Jesse Steinfeld, then Surgeon General of the United States, warned Americans about the negative effects of television violence on the emotions and behaviors of children, "It is clear to me that the causal relationship between [exposure to] televised violence and antisocial behavior is sufficient to warrant appropriate and immediate remedial act ion... there comes a time when the data are sufficient to justify action. That time has come" (Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee, 1972). Additionally, six major medical groups warn of harmful effects of media violence on children (Congressional Public Health Summit, 2000). Studies show there is a stronger relationship between viewing violence in television programs and movies and aggressive behavior, than there is between asbestos and cancer, and calcium intake and bone mass (Bushman, 2001). Over 1,000 research studies in the past 50 years reveal there is a relationship between viewing violence in television programs and movies and aggressive behavior in children, youth, and adults. However, young children are most vulnerable to the effects of media violence because they:
Research has shown three major effects of viewing violence on television:
Criticisms of ResearchDespite numerous studies conducted on this topic, critics claim that the research is flawed and that there are other societal forces (e.g., lack of parental involvement, poverty, teenage alienation, peer group) that have led to the increased violence in America. Criticisms include that many of the studies were lab experiments and cannot be generalized to the real world, the connection between media violence and violent behaviors in viewers has not been empirically established, and most behavior is multi-determined (Fischoff, 1999). Violent Television ProgramsA typical American child spends an average of 28 hours a week (nearly 3 to 4 hours a day) exposed to television outside of school. When looking at total use of media, children between the ages of 8-18 spend more than 40 hours a week using some form of media (e.g., television, music, video games) (Roberts, Foehr, Rideout, & Brodie, 1999) outside the classroom and often as an individual effort. Time spent watching television programs and playing video games is time that children could use to read for pleasure, take a nature hike, play an instrument, or interact with family members. The National Television Violence Study (1996-98), through analyzing 8,000 hours of television and cable broadcasting, found that 60% of the programs on television were violent. Of this 60%, 4% did not show any anti-violent themes, and 40% of violent acts were perpetrated by the "good characters". When the violent acts were conducted by "bad characters," over 40% of the bad characters went unpunished. Seventy-three percent of the violence perpetrators did not show any remorse for their violent actions, and 55% of the victims did not show any pain or suffering due to violence inflicted on them. In addition, 40% of the violent acts were portrayed as humorous (Houston et al., 1992). Children may be exposed to as many as 5 violent acts per hour during prime time and an average of 26 violent acts per hour during Saturday morning children's programs. Thus, an average American child will have seen about 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other assorted acts of violence, by the time they graduate from elementary school (Huston et al., 1992). Violent Video GamesAlthough television serves as the main source of media consumption for children, children are increasing their video game use. Approximately 10% of children ages 2-18 play video games over 1 hour each day (Roberts et al., 1999), and boys aged 8-13, on average, play video games over 7.5 hours each week (Roberts et al., 1999). In 2000, the revenues of video and computer games were as great as those of the retail software industry and significantly greater than that of the domestic film industry. According to 4th grade girls, their favorite video games are violent ones (Buchman & Funk, 1996). Andersen and Dill (2000) found that use of violent video games was related to aggression and delinquency, and the time spent playing video games was negatively related to academic achievement. Sixty to 90% of the most popular video games portray violence. Andersen (2001) also found that playing a violent video game for as little as 20 minutes causes a decrease in prosocial, helping behaviors and an increase in the following:
How Do Children Learn to Become Aggressive?Observational LearningObservation, imitation, and trial and error are key strategies used by children to learn to speak language--and to learn violence. Adults have always been models for observation; however, the extent of role modeling provided by adults has changed with industrialization and technological advances. With the advent of television, movies, and video games, parents are only one source of role modeling. Children spend many hours learning from television, movie, and video game characters. Combined, these media characters tap the audio, visual, and tactile modes of learning, thus making them very stimulating and appealing to young audiences. As a result, if caution is not taken, these media can minimize the presence of parents, teachers, and other adults in the community as role models. However, it is important to note that family attitudes and social class are stronger determinants of attitudes toward aggression than is the amount of exposure to TV. Therefore, parents have the opportunity to mitigate the potential negative effects of media violence (Huesmann, 2001). Observational learning is stronger when the identification with the character is based more on wishful thinking than on similarity with the character (Huesmann, 2001). Examples of identification with non-similar characters are popular animated violent video games and television programs. There are a number of instances where children have imitated the violent acts they see in video games and television programs in real life in terms of shooting and other violent acts in school, neighborhood, and at home. Repeated exposure over time strengthens the learning of observed violent acts. Besides observational learning, operant conditioning, a very important type for long-term learning, can play its part, especially in video games. In video games the child is an active learner as he or she makes things happen by choosing the response, targeting towards it, and finally making it happen. Moreover, this habituation becomes stronger as his or her violent response, such as shooting the target, fighting, and hitting, is reinforced by earning additional points. An Extension Response: "The Impact of Entertainment Media Violence on Children and Families," a National Satellite SeriesBased on the growing research and societal concern regarding violence portrayed via entertainment media, Iowa State University Extension produced and broadcasted a four-part national satellite series (October 8, 22 and November 5, 19, 2001): "The Impact of Entertainment Media Violence on Children and Families," to 175 sites across the nation. The use of satellite technology allowed the program to be offered in several sites (rural and urban) across the nation simultaneously. As a result, a greater number of people participated in the program than if the program had been offered in only one site. In addition, travel costs were minimized for participants if the satellite program was offered in their community. This satellite series brought together nationally recognized experts in the field of entertainment media violence to provide reliable information and practical suggestions to Extension and other family professionals. Approximately 1,800 professionals and parents were reached through this series. The Logic Model--A Framework for Measuring Program OutcomesTo help describe what was done, how it was done, and the short-term outcomes that are associated with the satellite series, the logic model framework was implemented. The logic model describes the sequence of events that links program investments to results (University of Wisconsin Extension, 2002) and is the foundation of outcome-based evaluation. The purpose of the logic model is to clarify and make precise each element of the program and help identify the process and outcomes of the program. Graphically, the logic model illustrates the relationship of the parts to its whole and helps to summarize the program processes (inputs, activities, outputs) and program outcomes (Table 1).
ResultsOutputs
OutcomesThe satellite series was evaluated to assess the extent of change in participants' and site facilitators' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to potential negative effects of entertainment media violence for children and families. Short-Term OutcomesThe percentages reported below are rounded up to the nearest percent and reflect individuals who completed the evaluation forms immediately following the satellite series. Given that the response rate is low (25% for participants; 17% for facilitators), care needs to be taken in interpreting the findings so they are not generalized to the total number of individuals who participated in the satellite series. The low response rate could be due to the extensive length of the series (four programs over a 1-month period) and that there was no requirement for participants to complete the evaluation forms or for local site facilitators to return the evaluation forms to the originating institution.
Long-Term OutcomesA follow-up evaluation was conducted in March 2002, 4 months following the last satellite broadcast (November 19, 2001) to assess the extent to which the information shared during the satellite programs was retained and/or resulted in action steps taken by participants. Participants and facilitators who shared their e-mail addresses on the attendance sheet at the end of the series were sent an e-mail message asking them to complete a follow-up survey located at the Web site created for the series. When participants submitted their responses their e-mail addresses and names were not identified with their responses. The follow-up survey reported:
One hundred one participants responded to the electronic survey. A paired t-test was run to assess any significant change in attitude and knowledge before, immediately after, and 4 months after the program. The results indicated that the extent to which entertainment media violence affected children negatively was rated significantly higher (p=<.001) by participants immediately after the program (M=2.881, SD=.355) than before the program (M=2.535, SD = .558). The extent to which entertainment media violence affected children negatively was rated significantly higher (p<.001) by participants in the 4-month follow-up survey (M=2.861, SD=.375) than before the program (M=2.335, SD=.558). While the survey ratings immediately after the program were slightly higher than the 4-month follow-up responses, there was no significant difference between the ratings of these two surveys, indicating that in the 4 months between the end of the series and the follow-up survey the participants did not perceive any additional shift in attitude regarding the negative effects of entertainment media violence. A majority of participants who responded to the e-mail survey indicated that they planned to continue the activities they identified they would do immediately following the series (listed above), as well as form local committees to address issues related to entertainment media violence and include information in agency and community newsletters. Participants also stated that they need additional support to find funds to help develop educational programs about entertainment media violence (e.g., funds for staff time, resources, etc.) and brief fact sheets/handouts to disseminate to parents, volunteers, and professionals. A large number of participants expressed the seriousness they felt towards the issue of entertainment media violence after participating in the series. A majority of other responses indicated appreciation for the research shared, the media literacy content, the suggestions shared for parents and professionals working with children, and the information regarding various implications of entertainment media violence for different age groups of children. Lessons Learned for Producing a National Satellites SeriesQualitative responses to the surveys (at end of the series and 4-months later) helped to inform the suggestions below for future satellite programs.
Recommendations for Extension ActionRole of Extension Professionals in Educating About Entertainment Media ViolenceExtension has a history of assisting parents and other adult caregivers in understanding influences on child development, of speaking up for the needs of children and families, and of helping families and communities critically think about public issues affecting their lives. Mass media (e.g., newspaper articles, radio talk shows, cable television, Web sites) have long been major vehicles for Extension to share research and practical implications for families and professionals. Satellite broadcasts continue to serve as a cost-effective way to share this information, as well. This satellite series was one strategy to increase professionals' and parents' awareness and understanding of the issue, critically think about the issue, and begin to take action steps to address the impact of entertainment media violence on children and families. Suggestions for Extension Professionals
Messages Extension Should Share with Families
Additional ResourcesAdditional resources on entertainment media violence can be retrieved from <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media/resources.html>. ReferencesAmerican Psychological Association. (1985). Violence on television: What do children Learn? what can parents do? Iowa State University. Retrieved July, 7, 2003, from: http://www.apa.org/pi/pii/vio&tv.html Anderson, C. A. (2001). The impact of violent video games. Iowa State University. Retrieved June 10, 2003 from http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media/program.anderson.html Anderson, C., & Dill, K. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 772-790. Buchman, D. D., & Funk, J. B. (1996). Video and computer games in the 90's: Children's time commitment and game preference. Children Today, 24, 12-16. Bushman, B. (2002). The impact of violent television programs and movies. Iowa State University. Retrieved June 10, 2003 from: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media/presenters.html Congressional Public Health Summit (2000). Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children. Retrieved June 10, 2003 from: http://www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/jstmtevc.htm Fischoff, S. (1999). Psychology's quixotic quest for the media-violence connection. Journal of Media Psychology, 4(4). Retrieved September 20, 2000, from: http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/sfischo/violence.html Huesmann, R. (2001). The psychology of media violence: Why it has a lasting impact on children. Iowa State University. Retrieved June 10, 2003, from: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media/program.huesmann.html Huston, A. C., Donnerstein, E., Fairchild, H., Feshbach, N. D., Katz, P.A., Murray, J.P. et al. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. The Impact of Entertainment Media Violence on Children and Families. (2001). Retrieved June 10, 2003, from: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media McCain, J. (2000). John McCain on families and children. June 10, 2003, from: http://www.issues2000.org/Social/John_McCain_Families_&_Children.htm Media Awareness Network. (2003). Retrieved June 10, 2003, from: http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/violence_entertainment.cfm Norman, C. L. (2001). The challenge of Extension scholarship. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001february/comm1.html Oliver, M. B. (1994). Portrayals of crime, race and aggression in "reality based" policy shows: A content analysis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 38, 179-192. Roberts, D.F., Foehr, U.G., Rideout, V.G., & Brodie, M. (1999). Kids & media @ the new millennium. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation. Rogow, F. (2001). Media literacy: A potent antidote to media violence. Retrieved May 19, 2003, from: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/families/media/presenters.html The State of Children in America's Union: A 2002 Action Guide to Leave No Child Behind. Children's Defense Fund. Retrieved July 7, 2003, from: http://www.cdfactioncouncil.org/actionguide/ Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior, Television and Growing Up. (1972). The impact of televised violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. University of Wisconsin Extension. (2002). Program development and evaluation: The logic model. Retrieved June 10, 2003, from: http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/evallogicmodel.html
Perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service: A Community Resource for Youth and Family ProgramsClaudia Mincemoyer Daniel Perkins Catherine Lillehoj IntroductionThe study discussed here examined the perception of Cooperative Extension personnel, human service providers, and members involved in local PROSPER teams, regarding the role in the community that the Cooperative Extension Service played in providing prevention services to youth and families. PROSPER (PROmoting School-Community-University Partnerships to Enhance Resilience) is a research initiative designed to test a partnership model that builds capacity to deliver research-based family and youth interventions--interventions that are designed to bolster youth competencies, learning, and positive development (Spoth, Greenberg, Bierman & Redmond, 2004). The PROSPER partnership model builds upon an extensive body of literature and existing conceptual frameworks for community-based partnerships addressing risk reduction, competence-building, and positive youth development. Namely, PROSPER creates a collaboration between two well-established educational delivery systems with a broad reach to American communities--public schools and the Cooperative Extension Service. These collaborations receive guidance and technical assistance based on science-guided practice from their state land-grant universities. (For more information on PROSPER, see Spoth, Greenberg, Bierman, & Redmond, 2004.) Extension's Involvement in Youth and Family ProgramsThe Cooperative Extension Service has a long history of providing educational programming for youth and families. The goal of Extension programming is to encourage self-reliance and improve the quality of life for youth and families. Cooperative Extension Service personnel implement research-based programs that address a broad range of issues and needs, including youth character development, youth science and technology skill development, youth and family resiliency skills, child care and parenting skills, as well as prevention programs addressing teen pregnancy, child abuse, community crime and violence, drug and alcohol abuse, and academic underachievement (Hobbs, 1994). The Cooperative Extension Service supports base programs and national initiatives that provide direction for educational programming in each state. Base programs define the major program foci, are central to the mission of Cooperative Extension, and are common to most Cooperative Extension units. Two of the seven base programs support the Cooperative Extension Service's role in youth and family programming: 4-H and Youth Development and Family Development and Resource Management. All states provide some programming in these base program areas. National initiatives are also created to meet specific emerging needs of communities and to respond to societal concerns. For example, Extension Cares is a national initiative developed to improve childcare and youth programs, as well as supporting prevention programming (CSREES, 2003). Another national initiative, Children, Youth and Families at Risk (CYFAR), was developed to provide resources and strategies to foster and support prevention programming for at-risk children, youth, and families. Since 1991, CYFAR has supported programs in more than 600 communities in all states and territories. As part of the CYFAR Initiative, an organizational change study was conducted in 42 states to assess the ability of the Cooperative Extension Service to work with at-risk children, youth, and families (Betts, Marczak, Peterson, Sewell, & Lipinski, 1998). The respondents, CES personnel, reported strong organizational support for expansion and strengthening programs for at-risk children, youth, and families. Moreover, in 34 states, one-half or more respondents reported that they are called upon at least monthly for their expertise related to children, youth, family, and community issues, suggesting that Cooperative Extension professionals are recognized for expertise related to youth and families. Collaboration in Youth and Family ProgramsThe Cooperative Extension Service is committed to fostering community-based partnerships and collaborations to solve local problems. A central value of the Cooperative Extension Service is to optimize resources and enhance program outcomes through partnerships with external organizations (White & Burnham, 1995). Warner, Hinrich, Schneyer, and Joyce (1998) suggest that the role of Cooperative Extension Service personnel is transitioning from educational programmer and facilitator to builder of community partnerships that engage in research focused on the community problem-solving process. The CYFAR Organizational Change Survey (Betts et al., 1998) found that collaboration with other community, state, and federal organizations was perceived to enhance the Cooperative Extension Service's experience and credibility in work with at-risk groups and that collaboration was worth the effort. Lerner (1995) indicates that it is imperative for prevention research to include collaborations between researchers and community groups, agencies, and institutions. The Cooperative Extension Service can provide a valuable link between community groups and institutions (e.g., schools) to enable collaborative prevention efforts. The Cooperative Extension Service increasingly collaborates with schools and community agencies to develop, deliver, and evaluate prevention programs (Miltenberger, 2001; Molgard, 1997; Smith, Hill, Matranga, & Good, 1995; Smith, Hill & Bandera, 1997). Smith et al. (1995) conducted a qualitative study of school principals who had collaborated on youth at-risk programs with the Cooperative Extension Service. One of six major elements identified as making a difference in the collaboration was the local support provided by the Cooperative Extension Service. Perception and Role of the Cooperative Extension Service in Providing Services to Youth and FamiliesWarner, Christenson, Dillman, and Salant (1996) examined the public's perception of the Cooperative Extension Service and how it had changed from 1982 to 1995. Using a telephone survey, a random national sample of adults (N =1,048) was asked their perception of the Cooperative Extension Service, use of their programs, and priorities for funding. The same questions were asked of a national random sample of adults in 1995 (N = 1,124); 45% indicated that they had heard of the Cooperative Extension Service, a 5% increase from 1982. Of the four program areas, 4-H had the greatest visibility (i.e., 69% of respondents had knowledge of 4-H programs); however, this was an 8% decline in the awareness level of the 4-H Youth Development program over the 13-year period. When asked if they or an immediate family member had ever used Cooperative Extension services, 26% indicated a positive response. Across the U.S., the greatest rate of use was found in the Midwest and Southern regions, among those living on farms, among Caucasians, by middle-aged persons, and by those with higher educational and income levels. Even though the Cooperative Extension Service has made a concerted programming effort to reach under-served audiences (e.g., urban residents, youth and young families, and persons with lower levels of income and education), those groups remain the least likely to be aware of the Cooperative Extension Service (Warner et al., 1996). Johns, Moncloa, and Gong (2000) examined the Cooperative Extension Service's role in strengthening community-based programs focused on pregnant and parenting teens. They identified 10 best practices for teen pregnancy prevention. In particular, they noted that the Cooperative Extension Service could provide extensive knowledge and support in three of the 10 best practices: youth development, family involvement, and cultural relevance. The authors identified those three issues because of the Cooperative Extension Service's historic experience and expertise in those areas. Through the 4-H Youth Development program, the Cooperative Extension Service has played a key role for over 100 years with programs focused on academic enrichment, life skill development, community service, and leadership development. Supporting and developing family involvement programs is another role identified for the Cooperative Extension Service. In the majority of states, the extensive experience and knowledge of Cooperative Extension personnel was identified as a major asset in working with multicultural populations through the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program and the 4-H Youth Development program. In sum, the Cooperative Extension Service is the only community-based organization with a direct connection to the research expertise of the land-grant university and has a history of effective and extensive collaborative networking among community agencies and institutions who serve youth and families (Coward, VanHorn, & Jackson, 1986). From the literature reviewed previously, there is strong descriptive and anecdotal evidence that the Cooperative Extension Service is a community leader in providing services to children, youth, and families. Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of the study discussed here was to examine the perception of the Cooperative Extension Service as an organization addressing issues facing children, youth, and families. Data were drawn from the PROSPER project. Cooperative Extension Service agents and directors, as well as members of community PROPSER teams, were interviewed to assess: the Cooperative Extension Service's reputation for providing services to youth and families, the perceived level of commitment that the Cooperative Extension Service has for fostering school and community-based prevention programs, and perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in improving the lives of youth and families. Specifically, the research questions were:
MethodsIn the spring of 2002, paid survey researchers conducted face-to-face interviews with Cooperative Extension Service agents (N=22) on PROSPER teams, county Cooperative Extension Service directors from PROSPER communities (N=19), and other PROSPER team members (N =238) in 28 communities (i.e., 14 in Pennsylvania and 14 in Iowa). Those interviews included both comparison (N=7) and intervention communities (N=7) in each state and were completed at the beginning of the PROSPER project. No PROSPER activities had occurred in the intervention communities prior to the interviews. PROSPER team members were identified and interviewed in the comparison communities although they never formed or met as a team following the interviews. Communities involved in the PROSPER study included rural areas and small towns with school districts varying between 1,236 and 5,192 students; the average school district size was slightly less than 3,000 students. PROSPER team members included parents, Safe and Drug Free School coordinators, community mental health and substance abuse agency representatives, principals, and other school personnel (e.g., teachers and guidance counselors). Participants were asked questions about their perception of the Cooperative Extension Service regarding:
MeasuresReputationThis single-item variable was measured with responses to the statement, "The Cooperative Extension Service has a good reputation in this community for providing services to youth and families." Participants were asked to respond using a Likert scale ranging from "Strongly agree" (1) to "Strongly disagree" (4). CommitmentParticipant responses to this single-item variable were measured with the statement, "The Cooperative Extension Service is committed to fostering school- and community-based prevention programs." The same four-point Likert scale was used as with the reputation variable. Leading forceThis single-item variable measured the level of agreement with the statement, "The Cooperative Extension Service is seen as a leading force in the community in improving the lives of youth and families." The Likert response scale ranged from "Strongly agree" (1) to "Strongly disagree" (4). ResultsThe analyses involved a two-step process. First, descriptive statistics were conducted on all the variables. Second, the Fisher's Exact Test was used to investigate significant differences for both the first and second research questions. CES Agents' and Directors' PerceptionsIn terms of the reputation of the Cooperative Extension Service in providing community youth and family programs, no significant difference was found between the perceptions of agents and directors (Fisher's Exact Test = 0.1.69; N = 39; p = 0.58) (Table 1). Given the small cell sizes for the "Strongly disagree" and "Disagree" categories, these two categories were collapsed into one category. A subsequent Fisher's Exact Test found no significant difference between perceptions of Cooperative Extension Service agents and directors (Fisher's Exact Test = .52; N = 39; p = 0.54).
Cooperative Extension Service agents' and directors' perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service's commitment to fostering school and community-based prevention programs were similar. No significant difference was found between perceptions of commitment (Fisher's Exact Test = 0.22, N = 41; p= 0.99). Because the counts were so low for the "Strongly disagree" and "Disagree" categories, these two categories were collapsed into one category to determine whether there was a difference for those that "Disagreed/strongly disagreed" and those that "Agreed/strongly agreed." However, no significant difference was found (Fisher's Exact Test = 0.22, N = 41; p = 0.99). In examining the perception of the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in improving the lives of youth and families, no significant difference was found between agents' and directors' perceptions (Fisher's Exact Test = 3.19; N = 40; p = 0.32). Two categories, the "Strongly disagree" and the "Disagree" categories, were combined into one category. The Fisher Exact Test with the combined category yielded no significant differences between Cooperative Extension Service agents' and directors' perceptions (Fisher's Exact Test = 1.58; N =40; p = 0.54). CES Personnel's and Other PROSPER Team Members' PerceptionsUsing Fisher's Exact Test, no significant difference was found between perceptions of CES personnel (i.e., agents and directors; N=41) and other PROSPER team members (N=238) regarding the Cooperative Extension Service's reputation for providing services to community youth and families (Fisher's Exact Test = 1.78; N = 233; p = 0.63). The categories of "Strongly disagree" and "Disagree" were combined, and another Fishers' Exact Test was completed. However, no significant difference was found (Fisher's Exact Test=1.54; N=233; p=. 51). In terms of perceptions about the Cooperative Extension Service's commitment to fostering school and community-based prevention programs, an overwhelming majority (91%) of PROSPER team members "Agreed/strongly agreed" that the Cooperative Extension Service was committed to that goal. Similarly, the majority of Cooperative Extension Service personnel (89%) reported that they believed the Cooperative Extension Service has a commitment to fostering prevention programming. Given this similarity, no differences were found between Cooperative Extension Service personnel compared to the other PROSPER team members in their perception of the commitment of the Cooperative Extension Service to foster prevention programs (Fisher's Exact Test = 2.35; N = 244; p = 0.48) (Table 2).
The categories of "Strongly disagree" and "Disagree" were collapsed due to a low count, and another Fisher's Exact Test was conducted. No significant difference was found (Fisher's Exact Test = 1.36; N = 244; p = 0.51). Perceptual differences between Cooperative Extension Service personnel and other PROSPER team members regarding Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in improving the lives of youth and families were also examined with the Fisher's Exact Test. A significant difference was found between perceptions of Cooperative Extension Service personnel and other PROSPER team members (Fisher's Exact Test = 7.97; N = 245; p <. 05) (Table 3). Specifically, Cooperative Extension Service personnel (89%) were significantly more likely to perceive the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in the community in improving the lives of youth and families compared to other PROPSER team members (66%).
DiscussionThe purpose of the study was to examine perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service as a community organization that addresses issues concerning youth and families. The perceptual similarity of both agents and directors points to a strong, shared mission and vision among all Cooperative Extension Service personnel. Specifically, both agents and directors who participated in the study, from both the comparison and intervention communities, agreed with the Cooperative Extension Service mission of fostering community-based collaborative efforts to enhance the quality of life for all community residents with special regard for children, youth, and families. Both Cooperative Extension Service personnel and other PROSPER team members had similar positive perceptions concerning the reputation of the Cooperative Extension Service in providing services to youth and families. Further, the majority of respondents (both community team members and Cooperative Extension Service personnel) reported that the Cooperative Extension Service was committed to providing prevention programs. Thus, non-Cooperative Extension Service community professionals (other PROSPER team members) reported a strong reputation and commitment of the Cooperative Extension Service. Those findings concur with previous research (Johns et al., 2000) indicating the historic experience and expertise of the Cooperative Extension Service in providing programs to both youth and families. A significant difference was found between Cooperative Extension Service personnel and other PROSPER team members regarding Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in improving the quality of life for youth and families. PROSPER team members were less likely to perceive the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in improving the quality of life for youth and families. However, it is important to note that approximately two-thirds of the PROSPER team members did perceive the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading community force. ImplicationsThe Cooperative Extension Service does have a positive, well-established reputation among most youth and family-serving agency personnel. The Cooperative Extension Service needs to capitalize on this reputation to strengthen relationships and build collaborations with other youth and family-serving organizations and further solidify its role as an essential community partner. Nevertheless, approximately one-third of PROSPER team members did not view the Cooperative Extension Service as a leading force in providing youth and family programs. An implication of this finding is that the Cooperative Extension Service needs to embark on an aggressive social marketing campaign targeted at increasing agency personnel's and the general public's awareness and support for Cooperative Extension Service programs. Moreover, the increased visibility might increase local citizens' engagement in Cooperative Extension Service programs. Successes and challenges faced by the Cooperative Extension Service as it implements partnership models, such as PROSPER, where Cooperative Extension is a strategic partner, need to be shared with other Extension personnel. Replicating partnership models may help to address shrinking Extension programming budgets. Moreover, with limited program resources, the Cooperative Extension Service must collaborate with other youth and family-serving agencies to share resources and address the complex issues facing youth and families. Many funding agencies are requiring community partnerships be formed and are unwilling to grant funding to a single organizational entity. Programs delivered through a PROSPER-like partnership model may become the operational standard for Cooperative Extension in the future. ReferencesBetts, S. C., Marczak, M. S., Peterson, D. J., Sewell, M., & Lipinski, J. (1998). National results of the organizational change survey: Cooperative Extension's capacity to support programs for children, youth, and families at risk. Washington, DC: Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED450235) Coward, R. T., VanHorn, J. E., & Jackson, R. W. (1986). The Cooperative Extension Service: An underused resource for rural primary prevention. In J. D. Murray & Keller (Eds.), Innovations in rural community mental health (pp. 105-120). Mansfield, PA: Rural Service Institute. CSREES. (2003). National Initiatives. Retrieved September 18, 2003 from: http://www.reeusda.gov Hobbs, A. C. (1994). A nation at risk: Extension responds. Children, Youth & Families at Risk Reporter, Fall, 1. (A publication of the Cooperative Extension System, USDA). Johns, M. J., Moncloa, F., & Gong, E. J. (2000). Teen pregnancy prevention programs: linking research and practice. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000august/a1.html Lerner, R. M. (1995). America's youth in crisis: Challenges and options for programs and policies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miltenberger, M. W. (2001). Differences between parent and school personnel observations of Extension service literacy program's impact with children. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/rb3.html Molgaard, V. K. (1997). The Extension Service as key mechanism for research and services delivery for prevention of mental health disorders in rural areas. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 515-544. Smith, M., Hill, G. C., & Bandera, M. (1997). Success of high-risk students after completion of an elementary school intervention program: a longitudinal study. Tucson, AZ: Proceedings of the Annual NREA Convention. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED413151) Smith, M., Hill, G., Matranga, M., & Good, A. (1995). Working with high-risk youth: a collaborative approach. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995june/a4.html Spoth, R., Greenberg, M., Bierman, K. & Redmond, C. (2004.) PROSPER community-university model for public education systems: Capacity-building for evidence-based, competence-building prevention, Prevention Science, 5, 1. Warner, P., Christenson, J., Dillman, D., & Salant, P. (1996). Public perception of Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996august/a1.html Warner, M, Hinrichs, C., Schneyer, J. & Joyce, L. (1998). From knowledge extended to knowledge created: Challenges for a new Extension paradigm. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998august/rb1.html White, B. A., & Burnham, B. (1995). The Cooperative Extension system: A facilitator of access for community-based education. Washington, DC: National Institute on Postsecondary Education, Libraries, and Lifelong Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED385260)
Leadership Life Skills Demonstrated by State 4-H Council MembersJacklyn A. Bruce Barry L. Boyd Kim E. Dooley IntroductionThe 4-H Council is a body of approximately 34 young people elected to fill the highest positions young people can attain in the 4-H organization in a state. Being a State 4-H Council member is often seen as the pinnacle of a young person's 4-H career. Council members plan retreats, conferences, and camps for the 4-H members that they represent and are responsible for industry contacts and public appearances representing the state organization. They receive opportunities that are not available to other 4-H members, such as travel, networking, and leadership training. 4-H members spend many years in preparation to run for one of these coveted positions. The development of leadership and life skills is one of the stated goals of the 4-H program (National 4-H Council, 2003). Miller (1976) conceptualized leadership life skills developed in the 4-H program into seven categories: decision making, relationships, learning, management, understanding self, group processes, and communications. Seevers, Dormody, and Clason (1995) adopted Miller's conceptualization for purposes of their life skills assessment and expanded the definition to the development of the life skills necessary to perform leadership functions in real life. For purposes of the research discussed here, we will also use the seven categories of the life skills conceptualized by Miller and the broader definition from Seevers, Dormody, and Clason. The perception exists that participating in a variety of activities enables 4-H members to develop positive life skills. Seevers and Dormody (1995) found that most 4-H members participated in many different leadership activities. Participation was found to be greatest at the club level; however, researchers also found high participation in activities at the county/district level. In an assessment of activities where 4-H members ranked the activities they believed allowed them the best opportunity to acquire leadership life skills, four activities tied for the number one spot. Holding an office was the first of those four activities. Cantrell, Heinsohn, and Doebler (1989) found that perceived life skill development was positively related to general participation and leadership roles at the three succeeding levels ("club," "county," and "beyond county") of 4-H programming. We found that leadership life skill development dramatically increased when 4-H members experienced leadership roles beyond the club level, positively affecting development in nine of the 10 clusters surveyed (value development, interpersonal skills, citizenship development, communication skills, career development, agricultural skills, and home economics skills). It is also important to note that inter-relatedness plays an important role in defining and achieving motivation. Anderman and Midgely (1998) describe inter-relatedness as one of three pieces of the motivational pattern of self-determination. Self-determination theory describes students as needing a sense of competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy. Competence involves understanding how to, and believing one can, achieve various outcomes. Relatedness involves developing satisfactory connections to others in one's social group. Autonomy involves initiating and regulating one's own actions. For young adolescents, with their increased cognitive ability and developing sense of identity, a sense of autonomy may be important. Students at this stage say that they want to be included in decision-making processes and to have some sense of control over their activities. As Extension professionals, we often assume that leadership is taught, but research has failed to describe what was actually learned as a result of being an officer. For example, we know that they learn communication skills, but what kind of communication skills? We know that council members learn relationship skills, but how does this affect their future relationships? Purpose/ObjectivesThe purpose of the study discussed here was to assess the leadership life skills that 4-H members learned as a result of serving as a State 4-H Council officer. Methods/ProceduresThe research followed the qualitative paradigm, which embraces the notion that both interviewer and interviewee influence and are influenced by the process of data collection and analysis. Credible qualitative inquiry depends on creating categories of meaning firmly based in the social realities of study participants. The researchers used purposive sampling, a technique that intentionally seeks out participants/data sources because of certain qualities, to find participants who were willing to discuss their experiences as State 4-H Council members. The initial participants for the study were students in the classes taught by the researchers who self-identified themselves as former council members. The remaining participants were identified using a snowball sampling method (Babbie, 2001). Participants in the first group identified other State 4-H Council members who could be contacted about participating in the study. The study focused on 15 individuals who had participated in the State 4-H Council program from 1988-89 through 2001-2002. Interviews, participant observation, and document analysis were the methods used to collect data. Participation in semi-structured and unstructured interviews was voluntary, and interviews were coded to retain confidentiality. Data analysis followed the traditional methods described by Lincoln and Guba in Naturalistic Inquiry (1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985) adopted the Glaser and Strauss (1967) constant comparative method for use in naturalistic inquiry. The researchers' use of this method followed that adaptation and is outlined below.
Credibility was established through persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing (working with a panel to confirm findings), member checking (allowing interviewees full editorial control over their transcripts), and reflexive journaling. The researchers used thick description in the reporting of respondents' thoughts and ideas relative to the research questions and purposive sampling to establish transferability. The researchers used an audit and journaling to establish dependability. Methods to establish confirmability included an audit and reflexive journal. Establishing trustworthiness enables methodological soundness. Results/FindingsUsing Seevers and Dormody's Youth Leadership Life Skills Development Model and Miller's (1976) seven conceptualized categories of leadership skills, the researchers were able to identify some of the skills that the State 4-H officers gained throughout their term. Specific operational definitions for each of the categories, for purposes of this study, were created using the words of the State 4-H Council members. This was done in order to construct a more realistic conceptualization of the skills as the State 4-H Council members perceived them. The first of the seven categories of leadership life skills is "decision making." Several of the council members interviewed for this study demonstrated an ability to make decisions based on situations they encountered or methods they learned while on State 4-H Council. Ten council members talked about learning to make decisions based on the time requirement of being on State 4-H Council. These individuals discussed learning about priorities and making decisions based on the priorities they had chosen.
Nine council members expressed a desire to take on the State 4-H Council role because they wanted to make decisions that would make a difference in the lives and the 4-H experiences of their peers. One State 4-H Council member in particular discussed a long-standing desire to join State 4-H Council to make some changes that would have far-reaching effects for their district leadership. Another council member discussed wanting to make decisions that would have a positive affect on the 4-H members at home in the counties within their district.
"Relationships" is the second skill category. Eleven of the council members discussed getting to know and working with a large group of peers they did not know well at the outset.
Greater than their desire to work well with one another was their desire for a close-knit group of friends.
All of the council members interviewed discussed the friendships that grew out of their council experiences with great fondness, placing it at the top of the list of things that they walked away with from the experience The third of the seven categories of leadership life skills is "learning." Whether it was a skill or something about themselves or the world around them, many council members walked away with new knowledge. Five council members felt like the greatest lesson learned was a new skill.
Tied closely to the last category is the fourth category of "understanding of self." Having an understanding of self encompasses knowing your own strengths and weaknesses, and knowing in what areas of your life learning has occurred. Thirteen council members recognized that their personal growth was the area where their learning occurred.
"Management" is the fifth skill category. In the case of the State 4-H Council, management was similar to other skill areas and learning methods. Council members demonstrated the ability to manage their own paths to reach the state council goal by learning all they could from their own experiences and the experiences of others. These young people exhibited management skills through decision-making and priorities on their time. The sixth skill is group processes. Participants defined group process as understanding how a group works and how an individual can positively, or negatively, influence a group. Each participant interviewed discussed his or her own experiences with the group and his or her understanding of the group processes of the 4-H Council. Eight members of the group perceived that their group worked successfully or had positive group processes.
Five members of the group perceived that their group did not work well together of had ineffective group processes).
Seven State 4-H Council members discussed the cliquishness of the group as a whole or the lack of team unity.
The last category is communications. On State 4-H Council, communication is key between individual members, members and advisors, and between the council and the people they meet and work with outside the 4-H program. Several council members talked about learning how to communicate differently, depending on which of the three audiences they were addressing. Eight council members talked about learning to communicate with their peer groups.
Eleven of the council members discussed learning to communicate with their advisors.
Ten council members talked about learning how to properly communicate with the people at their different speaking engagements.
Conclusions/RecommendationsThe study discussed here examined the leadership life skills conceptualized by Miller and how each of the council members demonstrated those leadership life skills. It may be concluded from the findings that 4-H members do gain skills in decision making, communication, and getting along with others as a result of serving as a State 4-H Council officer. In addition, members developed positive, long-lasting relationships with other council participants. Participating on State 4-H Council is also an experience for self-growth and self-discovery. The findings of this study support the findings of Seevers and Dormody (1995) and Boyd, Herring, and Briers (1990) that serving as an officer increases leadership life skills. However, it is clear that advisors and trainers address some of the areas of leadership life skills more fully than they address others throughout the year. More deliberate efforts in developing leadership life skills should be made. Our recommendations are as follows.
ImplicationsIn a time when we increasingly hear the words, "we need to do more with less," the implications of this study for all Extension are directly tied to answering that call.
ReferencesAnderman, L. H., & Midgley, C. (1998). Motivation and middle school students. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED421282). Babbie, E. (2001). The practice of social research. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Boyd, B. L., Herring, D. R., & Briers, G. E. (1992). Developing life skills in youth. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a4.html Cantrell, J., Heinsohn, A. L., & Doebler, M. K. (1989). Is it worth the costs?. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 27(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1989spring/a4.html Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine. Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miller, R. A. (1976). Leader/agent's guide: Leadership life skills. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK. National 4-H Council. (2003). www.fourhcouncil.org. Seevers, B. S., & Dormody, T. (1995). Leadership life skills development: Perceptions of senior 4-H youth. Journal of Extension, [On-line] 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/rb1.html Seevers, B. S., Dormody, T. J. & Clason, D. L. (1995). Developing a scale to research and evaluate youth leadership life skills development. Journal of Agricultural Education, 36(2). 28-34. Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. (1977). Stages of small group development revisited. Group and Organization Studies. 2. 419-427.
Establishing a 4-H Research Base of Graduate StudiesJan Scholl Catherine Munyua Penn State University IntroductionFor years, Cooperative Extension administrators maintained that the 4-H program lacked a strong research orientation. In the 1980s, Dr. Mary Nell Greenwood, Administrator of the Extension Service, USDA, authorized and funded a national study of attitudes and perceptions of state leaders, program leaders and specialists to "Strengthen the Research Base for Extension Programs." In response to the findings of this study, Don Stormer (1986) reported that the 4-H research base was insufficient to ensure the program's "future viability." George McDowell, in his 2001 book, Land-Grant Universities and Extension into the 21st Century, noted that there has always been a kind of distortion regarding the intellectual investment in 4-H programming. In his words, "we always knew more about the calves and other animals than we did about the kids (p. 156)." Granted, studies conducted by land-grant universities and USDA exist and have received notoriety. Agricultural Experiment Station studies are still conducted, and these findings, relative to the 4-H program, are available though not widely read among youth development professionals. Efforts have also been made to provide documents of 4-H research abstracts on a state or regional basis (Conch & Howard, 2004; Weatherford & Weatherford, 1987; Cheatham, Tisdale, Smith, & Morgan, 1987; Pesson & Reach, 1963; Carter & Clark, 1961; Lind, 1959). In the 1980s, the PRK (professional, research, and knowledge) taxonomy was developed for the purpose of establishing competencies for youth professionals (Gerhard, 1988). Resources were allocated to establish a base of 4-H youth development research and resources at the National Agricultural Library (Beltsville, MD). Unfortunately, this collection has not been updated since the early 1990s. By contrast, graduate studies have received virtually no mention as credible research upon which to build a research base for the 4-H program. Though some studies may be located and purchased through Dissertation Abstracts¹ (UMI), only a handful were ever published and used as resources for Extension agents. Graduate studies also rarely cite other 4-H-related thesis and dissertations, an indication that few studies were actually built on these former 4-H research efforts. ObjectiveThe purpose of the study discussed here was to locate graduate theses and dissertations about the 4-H program in order that a research base might be established to further research and improve 4-H programming. MethodsThe study investigated a century of graduate theses, dissertations, and papers. The data collected about each study included the title of the study, the author, the year of publication, the degree the individual received, and the institution (college, university or program) that conferred the degree. If the National Agricultural Library held a copy of the study, a call number was also secured. The search for studies commenced between July 1998 and July 2003. To locate the studies, visits were first made to the National Agricultural Library to download all studies from the (Windspurs ¹) catalog with "4-H" in the title or abstract. (Most of the information about graduate studies was located in the cataloging notes.) When a thesis or dissertation was found, its bibliography was scanned for additional thesis references. Card catalogs, archives, and department collections were checked at six major universities throughout the United States: Cornell University, George Washington University, Montana State University, Penn State University, the University of Kentucky, and Washington State University. USAIN (U.S. Agricultural Information Network) and Canadian librarians were contacted to check U.S. and international library holdings. State 4-H leader responses were solicited through e-mail messages. Additional titles were gleaned and validated on two major on-line library research bases: Dissertation Abstracts (UMI) and the WorldCat(alog). When there were questions about the study's relevance to the 4-H program, a copy was interlibrary loaned or purchased and then reviewed. In some cases, it was also necessary to contact the registrar of the college to find information about the author's degree or a graduation date. An appreciable number of studies were located only through discussions with colleagues, presentations at conferences, and searching the written works of prominent 4-H officials and officers of NAE4-HA, both past and present. The data were entered on a Filemaker Pro ¹ software designed so that the information could be sorted by author, date, degree, institution, and keyword or phrase. Three reviewers conducted a content analysis establishing qualitative typologies (Berg 2004), a systematic method for classifying ideas into discrete groupings. In addition to computer sorting, each title was physically placed into categories and its placement examined several times by the reviewers in order to increase the validity and reliability of the analysis. LimitationsNo attempt was made to determine the quality of research conducted, and only the studies that specifically examined the 4-H program or its members were analyzed. Discussion of the Process of Locating and Analyzing the StudiesFirst, it is important to recognize that "4-H" was a difficult keyword to search. "4-H" and "4H" appear as part of dozens of chemical compounds, frequently studied in other dissertations and theses. The "4-H" found in a title or abstract may have been written as "4-H" or "Four-H", with or without the hyphen. In the early years, the 4-H program was also known as boys' and girls' clubs, 3-H, junior clubs, and even as industrial clubs. In other countries, it may have been known as 4-A, 4-B, 4-C, 5-C, 4-K, 4-S, 4-T, and by more than 30 names in foreign languages. IFYE, a prominent 4-H program, was known as the International Farm Youth Exchange as well as the International 4-H Youth Exchange. In addition, the colleges represented by the theses and dissertations became universities, and several experienced dramatic name changes, such as Glassboro College to Rowan University. These factors made the search for studies very challenging. Because abstracts have not been a part of the research citations until fairly recently, locating studies without "4-H" in the title was particularly difficult. Abstracts were of particular value when a significance was found that could be attributed to 4-H membership or program accomplishments. The studies did not always provide consistent information. Six students, for example, listed the USDA Graduate School as their institution, though no one was ever known to have graduated from there. Some studies indicated only that the student received a "masters" or "doctorate" degree. In a couple of cases, a student graduated with an Ed.D., and then the distinction was later changed to a Ph.D. (likely at the preference of the student), so a designated degree could differ depending on the thesis copy and how it was catalogued. Discrepancies were also found with the spelling and grammar of the title and the date of publication. Descriptive Findings and the Qualitative ReviewNearly 1,550 (1,547) studies were located between July 1998 and July 2003. These studies represented the years 1911 to 2002. The former year represented was the earliest study found, and 2002 was selected to include the centennial year of 4-H. New studies often require from 3 to 6 months to appear in on-line databases or to learn about through another source. Seventy-five percent of the studies were conducted by graduate students who completed a master's degree of some kind. A little less than 25% completed doctorates, including Ph.D. and Ed.D. degrees. The remaining received terminal degrees (a Bachelor degree in Divinity, for example), certificates, diplomas, or licenses. Students graduated from 130 colleges and universities across the U.S., Canada, and a handful of countries and territories, largely land-grant colleges and universities. But studies were also found at Harvard, Columbia, and the University of Chicago as well as at less known institutions as the Stonier Graduate School of Banking and the National Catholic School of Social Service. The studies also represented a variety of academic departments: Economics, English, Law, and Recreation, for example, as well as Education, Agriculture, and Home Economics/Family and Consumer Sciences. One student's study was conducted at an archeological dig at a 4-H campsite. Others studied specifics such as the 4-H uniform. There are some longitudinal and alumni studies. Only a few studies were found about 4-H demonstrations or public speaking. Those institutions graduating the most students were the University of Wisconsin (147), Ohio State University (126) and the University of Maryland (107). In the South, Louisiana State University (85) and the University of Tennessee (82) matriculated, by far, the largest number of graduate students. Over the century, many colleges and universities had a group of students that completed from 10 to 60 studies. Yet only one study about the 4-H program was found at over one-third (51) of the institutions. Outside the U.S., Aristoteleion Panepestimion Thessalonikes (Greece), the Universidad de San Carlos (Guatemala), the Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua; the Universities of Guelph and Saskatchewan and McGill University (Canada), and the University of the West Indies were represented. Students (perhaps those from other lands attending U.S. institutions) came from: Argentina, Brazil, British Guiana, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Hungary, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, Surinam, Swaziland, and Trinidad, largely between 1954 and 2000. It is interesting to note that in the 1950s and 1960s, a similar trend was found among U.S. graduate students who conducted research in a U.S. state other than that of the graduating institution. Though not a precise number because of the difficulty of analysis, approximately 40% of the graduate students conducting studies were women (highest at the end of the 20th century). The earliest study found was from 1911: Psychology of the Club. Author, Lewis Hartson, attended Clark University during an era when studies were being conducted on informal education and "Learning by Doing" (Swift, 1914) was the educational axiom of the day. It could be argued that Jessie Field Shambaugh's (1911) work as the Iowa "Corn Lady" could also have been considered an early graduate thesis. Her book contained many elements common to scholarly documents, including methods of conducting agricultural experiments with 4-H members. From 1911 to 2002, the number of studies peeked in the 1960s and again in the late 1980s. Dramatic dips in the number of studies seemed to occur during the years encompassing World Wars I and II and during the Vietnam War (Figure 1). At least one study was completed every year from 1926 to 2002, and at least 15 studies per year between 1954 and 2002. Figure 1.
The studies were diverse. Studies described unusual data collection methods, theories, and models representative of educational trends (such as competency- and criterion-based education and life skills, among others). Likewise, the use of technology in radio, film, television, slides, video, and programmed instruction was evident. Nearly all the literature reviews included historical information, and many included author vitae. Because terminology was not consistent and studies examined a number of concepts, the reviewers chose to qualify rather than quantify the analysis. Studies were sorted into these categories, and they are listed here in approximate order from most to least.
In some studies, 4-H was considered on a time continuum with other youth organizations. Wilder (1926) and Erickson (1968) are notable examples, though Hennegan's (1950) findings coincide most closely with 1902 date associated with the 4-H centennial. Four-H was, by far, not the only youth development organization in the early years. Standifer (1924), for example, did not consider 4-H among the dozen or so major youth organizations he compared in 1924. Riordan (1927) also did not mention 4-H, though he was concerned with "retaining our boys and girls on the farm." Credle (1922) developed USDA cooperative organizations among rural school children, and Hendrick (1927) utilized only YMCA youth in Cooperative Extension engineering efforts within Pennsylvania. Snyder (1979) claimed to have developed a nutrition program for community youth organizations when, in reality, she tested her curriculum only with Camp Fire Girls. Religious youth groups were also widely studied, though graduate student authors did not seem recognize 4-H's early orientation to such activities as "4-H Sunday." ConclusionThe purpose of the study discussed here was to locate graduate studies written about 4-H programs and 4-H members. Nearly 1,550 studies conducted by graduate students from 130 institutions were found from the years 1911 to 2002. It may never be known how many graduate studies actually exist, though the effort to locate and review graduate studies continues. The actual bibliographic citations were published by Scholl in 2003, and later, in a second edition (Scholl, 2004). An effort is being made to make these studies available on-line. Preservation of the studies is needed, as is making difficult-to-find copies available to lending libraries. Only one copy exists of the vast majority of titles, and perhaps a third of the studies may be found only by visiting a university archive, the academic department, or the author. Many can be purchased; costs range between 20 and 260 U.S. dollars, depending on the length and the format (fiche, microfilm, print). Often, libraries will provide an e-mail copy of the first few pages. A few institutions provide full-text documents on-line. The studies described in this article were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a qualitative review. Further study will be conducted as more studies are found and reviewed. A determination may need to be made about the quality of the graduate research, though some would argue that each study had an advisor and a committee that signed off on the student's efforts. Studies of other youth serving organizations are needed, as well as an integration of youth development research on all levels. Despite the fact that there is much more to discover about youth and youth development, it can be recognized that this 4-H research base includes more than animal husbandry studies, as McDowell (1991) suggested earlier. Let this collection of studies establish a basis for future research and the development of quality youth programs. ReferencesBerg, B. (2004). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Carter, G., & Clark, R. (1961). Selected readings and references in 4-H club work. University of Wisconsin: National Agricultural Center for Advanced Study, Publication No. 11. Cheatham, D., Tisdale, J., Smith, W., & Morgan, K. (1987). Final report: Phase I: Synthesis and taxonomy of the research base for 4-H youth development education. Mississippi State, MS: Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service and the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education. Couch, M. & Howard, J. (2004). Texas 4-H and youth research review 2003. College Station, TX: Texas 4-H and Youth Development Program. (This is an annual publication. Earlier editions are also available.) Credle, F. (1922). A suggested plan for cooperative organization work among farm boys and girls. Unpublished Masters of Science thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg. Erickson, J. (1968). American youth organizations: An etiological approach. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of Minnesota, St. Paul. Gerhard, G. (1988). Factors associated with the mastery of the 4-H professional research and knowledge base by extension agents, 4-H in Ohio. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus. Hartson, L. (1911). The psychology of the club. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Clark University, Worchester, MA (also published in the 1911 issue of the journal Pedagological Seminary). Hendrick, F. (1927). History of engineering extension at the Pennsylvania State College. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State College, East Lansing. Hennegan, M. (1950). Survey of ten selected youth organizations in the United States. Unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati. Lind, C. (1959). Review of research in 4-H club activities. Author, 15 pp. McDowell, G. (2001). Land grant universities and Extension into the 21st Century: Renegotiating or abandoning a social contract. Ames: Iowa State University Press. Pesson, L., & Reach, N. (1963). 4-H club research in Louisiana, 1954-1963. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University. Riordan, B. (1927). Catholic rural education in Kansas as a means of retaining boys and girls on the farm. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of Notre Dame, South Bend. Scholl, J. (2003). Making the best better: 4-H graduate research 1911 to 2002. University Park: Penn State University. Scholl, J. (2004). Making the best better: Sixteen hundred 4-H graduate studies. University Park: Penn State University. Shambaugh, J. (1911). The corn lady: A story of a country teacher's work. Chicago:A. Flanagan. Snyder, M. (1979). Nutrition education program for community youth organizations. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, Wayne State University, Detroit. Standifer, E. (1924). A study of the club life of American boys and girls and its relation to the program of religious education. Unpublished Bachelor of Divinity thesis, the Chandler School of Theology of Emory University, Atlanta. Stormer, D. (1986, May). Research base for Extension programs. News and Views, 16. Swift, E. (1914). Learning and doing. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Weatherford, E., & Weatherford G (1987). A review of theory and research found in selected experimental education, life skill development and 4-H program impacts literature. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service. Wilder, D. (1926). A study of the conditions determining the development of four youth movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, Boston University, Boston.
Evaluating Software Development: A Case Study with Pasture Land Management (PLMS) Grazing SoftwareJohn M. Galbraith Gordon E. Groover Franklin A. (Lex) Bruce, Jr. Nicholas D. Stone Gordon B. (Brinkley) Benson IntroductionControlled or rotational grazing has been widely recognized among educators, Extension agents, USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), and Soil and Water Conservation District employees as a management strategy that provides benefits to farmers and society through profitable and sound ecological management of grazing land and livestock. The economic benefits of controlled over continuous grazing at high stocking rates include improved productivity and harvest efficiency, improved forage and pasture quality (Dalrymple, Rogers, & Ingram, 1996; Hoveland, McCann, & Hill, 1997; Walton, Martinez, & Bailey, 1981), and more uniform distribution and recycling of animal waste (Joost, 1997). Controlled grazing also lowers the risk of soil erosion and nutrient runoff into surface water compared to continuous grazing at high stocking rates (Faulkner & Boyer, 1993; Faulkner, Kinvig, & Boyer, 1994; Faulkner, Boyer, & Dalton, 2000). Despite the broad range of benefits described from the use of controlled grazing, only small numbers of producers have adopted it. In Virginia, just 5% of all beef cattle operations (Virginia Forages and Grassland Council, 1998) and 11% of all dairies currently use management-intensive rotational grazing (Groover, 1998). Controlled grazing has not been widely accepted because it is difficult for some producers to plan and manage and there is uncertainty in the initial investment cost required to convert a farm to a controlled grazing system. Recently, decision support system (DSS) software programs have made planning easier and allowed users to test potential management benefits without making capital investments. Producers who use DSS computer programs can improve their economic efficiency, easily evaluate complex decisions, and benefit from appropriate use of science-based information. Developing public domain DDS software is difficult because of the time-limited usability testing period that precludes the collection of meaningful user feedback about the user-friendliness, functionality, accuracy, and potential acceptance of the software. Many public domain DSS software prototypes are developed under short-term funding contracts that do not allow enough time to identify weaknesses and implement appropriate modifications. Funding for marketing, sales, beta-version testing, and distribution studies are seldom included in grants used to develop the DSS software. The adoption of any DSS software is dependent on how easy it is to learn and use, its reliability and technical accuracy, its likelihood of being provided with long-term development and technical support, and its cost compared to the benefits it provides. The software must also fill user's needs that are not being supplied by a competing DSS. Incorporating user input during the initial stages of software development increases the likelihood that the final product will be adopted and will meet the needs of its users. While a number of beef and dairy grazing management software packages are available from commercial sources and academic institutions in the U.S., none have risen to become industry leaders. The lack of success for the public domain software seems to be due the software maker's failure to meet user needs, failure to provide programs that work outside of specific applications or regions, or lack of sustained funding for maintenance and improvement. Government agencies are reluctant to pay to collect user feedback that can be critical for software acceptance and do not allow the software products to be sold for profit. The lack of continued income limits the options for improving software after the initial distribution and makes the role of collecting user feedback during development stage even more critical. The Pasture Land Management System (PLMS) (Information Systems and Insect Studies, 2002) is a DSS software program that has been in development since 1998, with funding by the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Ruminant Livestock Efficiency Program (RLEP) and Sustainable Agricultural Research and Education Program (SARE). A partnership between Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) and NRCS provided the knowledge base and design specification for the program. PLMS is also an educational program that allows users to compare and contrast alternative management strategies by showing visually the relationships between forage supply and demand and the effects of changes on profitability and efficiency (Stone, Benson, Groover, Venuto, & Cline, 2000). The authors of PLMS believe that evaluations after initial training and subsequent software use can provide important information to identify training and program strengths and weaknesses that would not be available through conventional software development methods. This article presents a case study of an evaluation process that collected pertinent information about PLMS software from participants at training workshops and 6 months later, after the participants had time to test the software with potential users for consideration of use by other public domain software developers. Methods and MaterialsTwo training sessions for using the PLMS software were conducted in December 2001 and January 2002 at Virginia Tech. Forty-four Extension agents, educators, and conservationists from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina participated. Session activities and instructional resources included in each workshop were PLMS prototype software, two case studies, climate and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) maps, and user's guide. Participants received instruction on how to use the discussion forum and bug report sites on the PLMS Web site and how to download the training materials and the user's guide. Workshop activities included hands-on instruction consisting of program theory and background assumptions, data sources and input, downloading and installation practice, basic program operation, and case studies of actual beef, dairy, and stocker farms. All participants were asked to design a new farm plan/grazing system and to present and discuss the results with other participants. Participants were asked to complete a Web-based questionnaire before leaving the workshop to provide feedback on the instructional techniques used in the workshop and the instructors' ability to communicate important details involved with using PLMS. A follow-up questionnaire was developed and sent to workshop participants 6 months after they had completed their respective workshops. The questionnaire was aimed at assessing how much the participants had used the PLMS system and/or Web site after the initial training and, more particularly, to gather input from the participants to prioritize shortfalls and anticipated needs of the overall PLMS system and training. Results and DiscussionInstructional EvaluationsWorkshop participants identified their roles relating to working with farmers and forage/animal systems as 47%" Education-teaching principles," 36%" Service-assisting design and implementation," and 17 percent% "Administration of Programs and Compliance." Overall, the participants felt that the training they received was very good to excellent and that the instructors were well prepared and very knowledgeable (Table 1). Comments concerning training weaknesses and program difficulty for first-time participants were offset by positive responses with almost opposite opinions (Table 2).
Follow-up QuestionnaireParticipants were mailed a questionnaire about 6 months after participating in a workshop. The questionnaire included questions pertaining to using the PLMS Web site and user's manual, general use and application of the PLMS program, PLMS functional problems, and opinions about the PLMS system in general. Questionnaire Response RateNineteen of the 43 workshop participants returned usable questionnaires for a response rate of 44%. It was assumed that the 24 participants not returning questionnaires were uninterested in the PLMS System and would not be using it. Therefore, a response rate of 44% seemed acceptable in the attempt to gather additional information after the training sessions. Using the PLMS Web SiteThe PLMS Web site provided 1) a discussion forum; 2) frequently asked questions section; 3) bug report request; 4) resources for PLMS training; and 4) suggestions and/or problems on the Bug Report and Change Request pages. Most of the participants (72%) said that they had visited the Web site an average of a little over 5 times (one participant had visited it 10 times). The second most visited section on the Web site was the resources for PLMS training section, which was visited by 44% of the participants (Table 3).
User's ManualThe next section of the questionnaire pertained to the usefulness of the PLMS User's Manual. Only 2 of the 15 participants said that they had actually used the hard copy manual; however, most (77%) said that they planned to use it but had not had time to do so. Because PLMS is a computer program, not using the hard copy manual is somewhat understandable: PLMS users could be expected to want all directions, assistance, and/or tutorials included within the computer program. Because all participants had used the manual in their respective workshop, any comments they made about the manual was considered valid, even if they said they had not used it within the last 6 months. One participant commented that he felt that the manual was a bit complicated for him because he was a beginning computer user. Another participant commented that he had used the manual in explaining aspects of the PLMS to producers. Two other participants commented that the case studies within the manual were helpful. General Use/Application of the PLMS ProgramThe area of inquiry in the questionnaire pertaining to general use/application of the PLMS was paid special attention. If participants had used the system in the last 6 months, it was assumed that they would have more insight than someone who had not. However, even if a participant had not used the system outside of the workshop setting, his comments were still considered meaningful with regard to PLMS functions and/or problem and difficulties. Twenty-one percent of the participants (9) said that they had used the PLMS. The predominant reason given by five participants who had not used the system was "lack of time." The remaining participants' reasons for not using the system included lack of computer access or inability to load the system on a computer (3); system still needs refinement (1); insufficient pasture or grazing land (1); and our agency not making the program available or another program being available (2). The nine participants who said that they had used the system were asked how often they had used it, how many cooperators they had shown it to, and the reaction they had received from those cooperators. Several of the respondents said that they had not shown the system to any producers but had shown it to other employees in their agency and had used it several times themselves. Respondents said they had actually shown the system to anywhere from 1 to 63 cooperators. The respondents reported mostly positive reactions from producers regarding the system, and one respondent reported signing up 18 producers to learn more about the PLMS software. However, a few unspecified negative reactions to the system came from producers, one producer being concerned about the accuracy of the yield database. PLMS Functional ProblemsFifteen PLMS functional problems were listed for respondents to either agree or disagree with by using a 1-4 rating scale (1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Agree, and 4=Strongly Agree) (Tables 4 and 5). To make the statements easier for the respondents to read, all of them were written as statements with negative connotation (e.g., Errors occur in growth curves of certain forages).
Mean values were calculated for each of the 15 functions listed, using the 1-4 scaled values (Tables 4 and 5). Lower means indicated disagreement with a statement, while higher means indicated agreement with a statement. The mean value of each PLMS function question was interpreted as being in disagreement if the mean value was less than 2.5 and in agreement if the mean value was greater that 2.5. None of the mean values was exactly 2.5. Respondents agreed with 8 of the 15 statements confirming what were thought to be problems within the PLMS. Among the most agreed upon statements were first, Errors occur in growth curves of certain forages (Mean = 2.94, SD=1.06); second, Forage growth insensitive to pH and temperature (Mean=2.85, SD=0.555); third, Limited choices of forages, interseeding, and double-cropping for southern states (Mean=2.85, SD=0.801); and fourth, Inability to specify levels of farm management and supplementation limit simulation accuracy (Mean=2.80, SD=0.414). The most disagreed with statements (which were the functions operating well) were first, Crashes too frequently and Field data inputs too difficult to gather or determine (Mean=2, SD=0.378 and 0.535, respectively); and second, Cannot have both continuous and rotational grazing on the same farm (Mean=2.18, SD=0.728). Overall Opinions About PLMSIn the last section of the survey, respondents were first asked to list their top three problems/difficulties with the PLMS (Table 6). Common themes were found in each of the three rankings. Therefore, all the problems/difficulties mentioned by the respondents were combined into fewer than five themes. The themes included Limitations/Specific problems; Reporting; Time to use the system; Computer Related; and Other.
The most commented on problem and/or difficulty with the system fell under the theme limitations and/or specific problems within the system. While lack of user-friendliness was cited by several respondents, most comments tended to have to do with specific things like plant growth curves, forage growth patterns, setting baselines, etc. One comment asked for additional training. This suggestion seemed to be a good idea in light of the eclectic nature and specificity of the comments in general. The second most commented on problem with the system had to do with the reporting functions. These included printing reports, incorrect information within a report, and having more options for creating and printing summary reports. The last two themes (which had fewer comments) centered on not having time to get acquainted with and/or use the system and either not having a computer available or what seemed to be the complicated nature involved with loading the system. Also included in the Opinions about the PLMS section of the questionnaire were five statements pertaining to existing problems with PLMS that need to be addressed. Respondents were asked to rank these problems in terms of importance. One-half (50%) of the respondents ranked the statement User-friendliness of the menus and online support as the most important issue about the PLMS that needed to be addressed, followed by Technical accuracy of the existing program functions (29%). The last three statements: Features/options that simulate true grazing systems, Amount of time it takes to learn how to use and teach the program, and Amount of time/difficulty it takes to input the initial farm data, were all considered important by the respondents in that they needed to be addressed but were not ranked as most needed by as many respondents (24%, 24%, and 12%, respectively). The final question on the questionnaire gave the respondents an opportunity to make comments on the PLMS. Comments tended to replicate many of the statements that had already been made. Several comments pertained to the system being a good or great program but that the bugs in it need to be fixed (and that the program had a long way to go.) The need to conduct another training session was mentioned. There was a comment about the program's potential usefulness to other agencies. Finally, there were several comments pertaining to encouraging the PLMS researchers to keep working on the system, that the system is needed, and that it has great potential. ConclusionsEven though the PLMS has met with limited acceptance and use in the 6 months since the first training, developers of this and other public domain software can learn from the procedures used to obtain participant feedback pertaining to the software's development. User follow-up is critical for developers operating on limited budgets or seeking grant funds to continue the development process, for agents that develop informational web pages, and for faculty that develop Web-based curricula. Obtaining user feedback with ranking of priorities to address the needs of the targeted users provides a cost effective means direct programming. The authors have identified the following issues and tools that can help developers of public domain software and Web pages on limited budgets to direct their resources wisely.
Finally, future implications regarding the software are reflected by many participants saying they were glad there was a PLMS system and complimenting the researchers who were developing it. Comments included "the system has an overall potential," "could be used within other agencies," and that "if the bugs were worked out it, could provide needed assistance for producers." The feedback received from these methods will be used to improve the functionality, accuracy, and user-friendliness of the PLMS software and can be used by other public domain DSS software to improve their chance at user adoption. ReferencesDalrymple, R. L., Rogers, J., & Ingram, S. (1996). Comparison of "good" continuous stocking versus controlled rotation grazing of a cereal rye-wheat-annual ryegrass mixture. p. 14-18. In: Proceedings of the American Forage and Grassland Council. Vancouver, BC, Canada. 13-15 June 1996. Faulkner, D., & Boyer, D. (1993). Cow/calf operation case study of the conservation effects of intensive rotational grazing on Danny and Twyla Boyer's farm in Grayson County. 4 p. USDA-NRCS, Richmond, VA. Faulkner, D., Kinvig, K., & Boyer, D. (1994). Case study of the conservation effects of intensive rotational grazing on Mike and Marion Goldwasser's beef cattle farm in Virginia's Grayson and Carroll Counties. 6 p. USDA-NRCS, Richmond, VA. Faulkner, D., Boyer, D., & Dalton, S. (2000). Case study of the effects of intensive rotational grazing on Sanford and Teresa Dalton's dairy farm in Carroll County, Virginia. USDA-NRCS, Richmond, VA. Groover, G. E. (1998). Management practices on Virginia dairy farms. Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication 448-232. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. Hoveland., C. S., McCann, M. A., & Hill, N. S. (1997). Rotational vs. continuous stocking of beef cows and calves on mixed endophyte-free tall fescue-bermudagrass pasture. Journal of Production Agriculture 10:245-250. Information Systems and Insect Studies. (2002). Pasture Land Management System. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Available at: http://clic.cses.vt.edu/PLMS/index.html Joost, R. (1997). Pasture soil fertility management. In: 1997 Missouri grazing manual. (Gerrish & Roberts, eds.) University of Missouri, Columbia, pgs.35-44. Stone, N., Benson, G. B. Groover, G. Venuto, J., & Cline, B. E. (2000). Pasture Land Management System (PLMS). Proceedings of the National Conference on Grazing Lands (NCGL). Las Vegas, Nevada. December 2000. pp 261-271. Virginia Forage and Grasslands Council. (1998). Unpublished survey data, livestock management survey, Virginia Forage and Grasslands Council. Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences Department, Center for Survey Research, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Walton, P.D., Martinez, R., & Bailey, A. W. (1981). A comparison of continuous and rotational grazing. Journal of Range Management 34:19-21.
Are All These Rules Necessary? Extension Pesticide Programming with a Regulatory PurposeJimmy T. Bricker Andrew G. Martin Cheri L. Janssen Fred Whitford IntroductionThe United States Environmental Protection Agency (and sometimes state pesticide regulatory agencies) will apply a restricted-use classification to certain pesticide products that, even when used according to label directions, may cause adverse effects on people or the environment. Pesticides can be restricted for human health reasons (e.g., carcinogenicity) or environmental concerns (e.g., fish or bird mortality, water quality concerns, etc.). All federally restricted-use products have a restricted use product statement at the top of the first page of the label. These products are available only to certified and licensed pesticide applicators. Indiana's pesticide control law is similar to other states. It identifies private applicators--primarily farmers--as persons who apply restricted-use pesticides to property that they own, rent, or otherwise control by some form of contractual arrangement for purposes of producing an agricultural commodity. Under Indiana law, any private applicator who buys, uses, or supervises the use of restricted-use pesticides must be certified to do so and must have a private applicator permit issued by Indiana's pesticide regulatory agency (Office of the Indiana State Chemist). There were 15,493 private pesticide applicators in Indiana who held permits to purchase and use restricted-use pesticides in 2003. Indiana private applicators certify by passing a closed-book examination. Certified private applicators are issued a permit valid for 5 years. The private applicator permit carries an identification number that is unique to the permit holder and nontransferable. Persons selling restricted-use pesticides are legally obligated to record the permit number, at point of sale, when a private applicator purchases a restricted-use product. Prior to 2000, Indiana private applicators could only recertify by retesting. At the end of every 5-year certification period, county Extension educators would conduct half-day training programs and administer the certification exam at the conclusion of each program. Campus-based Extension pesticide specialists determined training content, wrote the training manuals, and provided support materials to the field staff, while Office of the Indiana State Chemist personnel developed the certification test. In 2000, a procedural change by Office of the Indiana State Chemist permitted private applicator recertification either by retesting at the end of the 5-year certification period or by documented attendance at three approved continuing education programs within the 5-year certification term. Thus, Indiana private applicators who attend the requisite number of continuing education programs no longer have to retest. Continuing education programs approved for private applicator certification must:
The new private applicator certification program is a collaborative effort among Office of the Indiana State Chemist, Purdue Pesticide Programs, and Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service educators. The program is flexible, allowing county Extension educators to offer pesticide programs of local interest and/or that address emerging pesticide issues. And continuing education programs serve as a vehicle for the communication of pesticide regulations to growers. Research ObjectivesExtension specialists have investigated the importance of the pesticide label to the private applicator (Prochaska & Norlund, 1998), where private applicators access pesticide safety information (Shern, Slocum, & Olsen, 1990), how to successfully convey pesticide safety information to private applicators (Coffman & Watkins, 1991; Hogan & Simeral, 2001), and how to encourage private applicators to comply with pesticide regulations (Hogan & Simeral, 1994). The research discussed here, part of a larger program evaluation, builds on this body of knowledge. In the study we examine the linkage between Indiana's private pesticide applicator recertification program and farmers' attitudes towards pesticide regulations as they relate to 1) restricted-use pesticide recordkeeping and 2) property rights and farm management decisions. MethodologyThere were 227 Indiana private pesticide applicators in Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service Area IX (Benton, Fountain, Jasper, Montgomery, Pulaski, Tippecanoe, Warren, and White counties) who had recertified by attending three continuing certification programs prior to March 2003. These individuals constituted the target population for the research project. A census, rather than a randomized sample, of all 227 persons was pursued because of the small size of the population. Their names and addresses were obtained from a database maintained by Office of the Indiana State Chemist. The survey instrument used in the evaluation was developed via application of a logic model (Barkman, Machtmes, Mason, Gordon, & Sandbury, 2000). Extension pesticide safety education specialists reviewed it to establish content-relevance. That portion of the instrument reported here, which addresses farmer's attitudes about pesticide regulations, was a nine-item, Likert-type scale. The five item anchor points were 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = undecided, 4 = disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree. Items included a mix of positively and negatively worded statements to minimize the possibility of encouraging socially desirable responses. A cover letter, survey, and self-addressed stamped envelope were mailed to all 227 farmers in Area IX who had completed their private applicator recertification requirements. A reminder letter followed 2 weeks later. Ninety-eight surveys were returned for a response rate of 43%. The low response rate precludes generalizing findings to the larger population. However, the results are descriptive of the attitudes of almost half of the population and warrant consideration on an exploratory basis. Following data collection, negatively worded items were reverse scored and a Cronbach's alpha test was run to determine instrument reliability. An alpha value of 0.73 was obtained, sufficient for basic research purposes (Nunnally, 1978). Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, and standard deviations were determined for purposes of data interpretation. ResultsRestricted Use Pesticide RecordkeepingPrivate pesticide applicators are obligated under the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (commonly referred to as the 1990 Farm Bill)--or by specific state regulations--to maintain records of restricted use product applications for at least 2 years. Indiana's record keeping regulation specifies that private applicators must record 11 items, including the:
State pesticide regulatory personnel, USDA representatives, and health professionals may access these records. The fundamental reasons for the record keeping regulations are 1.) to provide specific data in the event of a misuse complaint, 2.) to provide medical personnel with treatment information in the event of a poisoning by a restricted-use product, and 3.) to generate real-world use data in support of pesticide policy decisions. Survey respondents agreed with the statement that information on a restricted-use pesticide label is important to their family. They disagreed with the notion that restricted-use pesticide label information is of interest only to the EPA. Respondents agreed also that information kept in their pesticide records might possibly save a life. However, when asked if farmers are over-regulated--where record keeping requirements were offered as a specific example--respondents were collectively ambivalent. They were undecided also when queried about the need for entering 11 separate pieces of information into record to meet their record keeping obligations (Table 1.).
Property Rights and Farm Management DecisionsMinimization of pesticide spray drift is another regulatory component of the Indiana private pesticide applicator recertification program. The state of Indiana has a pesticide drift enforcement policy that embodies the concepts of due care and non-negligent use of pesticides. The policy seeks to minimize off-target pesticide spray drift while recognizing individual concerns, pesticide product labeling statements, and environmental and property protection needs. The importance of this policy grows as more farmers find themselves applying pesticides to fields next to urban neighbors. Survey respondents agreed that their non-farming neighbors possessed the same property rights as themselves. They agreed also that, in the event of a damage problem resulting from spray drift, the neighbor is justified in lodging a complaint. Yet, when presented with the statement that Right-to-Farm legislation permits farmers to operate in any fashion that suits their production needs, survey respondents only mildly disagreed. Note that all 50 states have Right-to Farm laws protecting farmers--who are in compliance with state and local regulations--from lawsuits by neighbors who claim that the farm is a nuisance. While Indiana's Right-to-Farm law was not a mandatory topic at private applicator recertification meetings, the researchers felt that the law was sufficiently understood as one which grants some protection to farmers without trampling on rights of non-farming neighbors (Table 2.).
A summary question (Table 2.) addressed private applicator attitudes towards Indiana's direct supervision requirement for non-certified applicators. In Indiana, non-certified farm workers may apply restricted-use pesticides under the supervision of a private pesticide applicator if the private applicator is physically on site or in voice contact (e.g., radio, telephone, etc.) if the farm worker is less than 30 miles away. The supervision requirement affords protection to the community and environment by ensuring that everyone using restricted-use pesticides has documented the competency to do so or is working under the close supervision of a certified, properly credentialed applicator. This requirement is a cornerstone of Indiana's regulatory effort to make certain that responsibility for the use of restricted-use products resides only with persons who have been tested with regards to their proper use. Nonetheless, survey respondents were undecided about whether the requirement was onerous to the extent that it might change their pesticide spraying activities. Conclusions and ImplicationsThe results of this study were somewhat surprising. It is apparent that Indiana private pesticide applicators who completed their recertification program requirements and participated in the survey believe that restricted-use pesticide labels bear important user-related information and that restricted-use records have value with respect to protecting human health. But these same applicators evidence no real support for the regulation that requires them to keep restricted-use product records. Respondents recognized too that their non-farming neighbors should not have to expect to deal with pesticide spray drift. And they agreed that their neighbors should be able to lodge a complaint against them in the event that drift damages the neighbor's property. However, when presented with the statement that Right-to-Farm legislation grants them greater property rights than their neighbors, these same farmers expressed only modest disagreement. Finally, respondents were asked about their attitude toward a state-imposed applicator supervision requirement. This requirement ensures that only competent or otherwise carefully supervised persons use restricted-use pesticides. It relates directly to the primary purpose of the private pesticide applicator certification program--to limit access to restricted-use products to trained and tested persons. Farmers were uncertain as to whether the requirement was too burdensome. This seeming dichotomy between farmers' respect for careful management of restricted-use pesticides and their lukewarm support for regulations that mandate careful management presents a challenge to Extension educators involved in pesticide safety education. Farmers' suspicions about government intrusion into their farming activities may be cultural and deeply ingrained. Therefore, successful regulatory programming has to address not just the mechanical issues pertaining to regulatory compliance, (i.e., how to comply) but also the context within which rules are deemed necessary. In order to encourage compliance, a discussion of the underlying regulatory rationale (e.g., promoting public health, enhancing environmental quality) assumes a vital role in any Extension program that successfully informs its audience about pesticide regulations. The authors recommend that Extension educators who conduct private pesticide applicator training programs include material in their training curriculum about how regulations are beneficial. By articulating the personal and social benefits of government regulations, educators can increase the odds that applicators will abide by, not just the letter, but also the spirit of the law. ReferencesBarkman, S .J., Machtmes, K. L., Mason, A., Gordon, J., & Sandbury, F. (2000). Evaluating the impact of your CES programs. Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service. Coffman, C. W., & Watkins, S. M. (1991) Getting the right stuff into the right hands. Journal of Extension [On-line], 29(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1991spring/a5.html Hogan, M., &, K. (1994). Turning regulation into education. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994december/iw2.html Hogan, M., & Simeral, K. (2001). Everyone a teacher, everyone a learner: A learner-centered pesticide private applicators recertification training. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/iw1.html Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Prochaska, S. C., & Norlund, E. L. (1998). Ohio farmer use of the pesticide label. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998february/rb2.html Shern, L. C., Slocum, A. C., & Olsen, L. G. (1990). Chemical dealers and pesticide safety. Journal of Extension [On-line], 28(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990winter/rb2.html
Demonstrating a Perimeter Trap Crop Approach to Pest Management on Summer Squash in New EnglandT. Jude Boucher Robert Durgy University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System IntroductionMany insects colonize crops from outside the field and exhibit preferences among varieties that can be exploited to arrest pest migration on a trap crop that completely encircles the main cash crop. The effectiveness of this trap crop spatial orientation can be further improved by adding other perimeter defenses, such as border sprays or biological, mechanical, and cultural controls to form a pest management system known as "perimeter trap cropping" (PTC). Perimeter trap cropping has led to a dramatic increase in trap crop efficacy over the past decade on a variety of pests and crops (Aluja et al., 1997; Boucher Ashley, Durgy, Sciabarrasi, & Calderwood, 2003; Brewer & Schmidt, 1995; Mitchell, Hu, & Johanowicz, 2000). Perimeter trap cropping functions by intercepting pest migration, regardless of the direction of attack. It then concentrates the pest population(s) in the border area, where they can be controlled, thus preserving natural enemies in the main crop (Aluja et al., 1997; Boucher et al., 2003; Mitchell et al., 2000). Because many insect pests act as vectors of important crop diseases, reducing pest populations on the main crop may also reduce losses from diseases. Perimeter trap cropping does not work on every pest or for every crop. However, it has the potential to improve and simplify pest management on a variety of crops grown on diversified vegetable farms. This article reflects the experiences of a group of commercial growers using PTC to manage cucumber beetles and bacterial wilt on summer squash in Connecticut. Field DemonstrationsIn 2002, four Connecticut growers surrounded a total of 6.5 acres of green and yellow summer squash with a "Blue Hubbard" trap crop, supplemented with border sprays. In 2003, six growers used the summer squash PTC system on a total of 17.25 acres. Because four of the growers participated in both years, and methods and survey results were nearly identical, only the results of the second year (2003) are presented. The six growers who volunteered for the program represented a range of farms, from small retail operations to larger wholesale operations with up to 600 acres of vegetable crops. Perimeter trap crop plantings ranged from 1/4 to 5 acres in size. All growers used a single row of trap crop along the length of the summer squash plantings, except for one who used a double-row along the woodland side of the field, where the heaviest pest pressure was expected. One to three Blue Hubbard plants were planted at both ends of each summer squash row, or the trap crop was seeded by machine across the ends of the rows, perpendicular to the main crop planting direction. The trap crop was planted at the same in- and between-row spacing as the main crop. One grower used bare-ground culture to produce his squash, while the others used a plastic-mulched system of production, with either trickle or overhead irrigation. Two growers used transplants for both the main and trap crop, while most direct seeded the whole field. Two growers planted their summer squash on plastic and the Blue Hubbard on bare-ground beside the mulched area. One grower, who was not interested in marketing Blue Hubbard squash, pulled the trap crop plants when the main crop was in bloom to avoid interspecies competition. This PTC system has the potential to reduce several insect and disease problems associated with squash, but was primarily designed to minimize direct damage from the striped cucumber beetle and from the bacterial wilt pathogen vectored by the beetle. Blue Hubbard squash was used as the trap crop in the system because it is highly attractive to cucumber beetles, squash vine borers, and squash bugs, but tends to experience a relatively low incidence of bacterial wilt infection compared with other potential trap crops tested (Boucher & Durgy, unpublished data). It is important that the trap crop does not act as a reservoir for bacterial wilt to help minimize disease spread and crop damage. Prior to each season, Extension personnel met with growers and supplied them with trap crop seed, fact sheets on PTC, and advice to help them implement and maintain the system on their farms. Certain important concepts were emphasized with the growers prior to the start of the program:
Repeat perimeter applications were considered justified if rain washed the insecticide from the plants prematurely or if any more live beetles were found in the trap crop prior to bloom. Full-field sprays were not to be applied unless pest pressure was excessive on a particular farm, causing a breach in the perimeter and substantial main crop infestation (>2 beetles/plant). Extension personnel helped growers monitor pest populations and time perimeter pesticide applications up until bloom. Most growers used backpack or boom sprayers to apply carbaryl, or one of several synthetic pyrethroids, to the trap crop row(s) only. One grower used his boom sprayer to apply perimeter sprays to the outer 25 feet of the block. After the final harvest, growers were surveyed and asked to compare the results of using the summer squash PTC system to prior years using a conventional program that relied on full-field insecticide sprays. Growers provided the number of full-field or perimeter insecticide applications used based on their spray records or by estimation. This data was used to calculate the difference in insecticide use between the two systems. Growers were also asked to comment on PTC and to rate a list of possible benefits on a scale of zero (no benefit) to three (high benefit). They were also asked to rate the PTC program for simplicity/complexity, describe their overall satisfaction level with the system, and rate the training program overall. Although grower surveys that compare pre- and post-program results represent an imperfect research tool that may rely on farm records and memories rather than objective observations, farmers' opinions may be among the best indicators of user satisfaction and whether new techniques may actually be adopted by industry. Results of PTC User SurveysAll six (100%) of the growers stated that their pest control was much better using PTC than in previous years without a trap crop system. When asked "what percent of your crop was damaged by target pest(s) prior to using...and after using a trap crop," growers estimated that an average of 19% of their squash was damaged by the target pests using multiple full-field sprays, while only 1% was lost using PTC. All respondents reported pesticide savings using the trap crop system. They applied an average of 1.9 insecticide sprays to the trap crop (only) using PTC, compared with 2.2 full-field sprays using their conventional program. The use of insecticide active ingredient was reduced by 1.6 pounds per acre (93%) using PTC. Potential insecticide savings are greater for larger plantings using PTC, because the edge-to-area ratio decreases as field size increases. Square plantings have a shorter perimeter than long rectangular plantings of similar size (area). Square plantings also result in greater insecticide savings than long, narrow blocks or fields. Eighty-three percent of the growers stated that they saved time and money using the PTC system compared to previous years. One of the producers said that PTC cost him about the same amount of money and took approximately the same amount of time as multiple full-field sprays. The five growers who said that PTC saved them money estimated their overall savings at $51 to $1,100 per acre. They attributed most of the savings to improved summer squash yield. The single grower who did not save money said that he tends to plant more squash than he needs, so the system did not result in increased sales. He stated that crop damage due to cucumber beetles and bacterial wilt was normally about 10%, but was eliminated using PTC. Eighty-three percent of the growers rated the PTC system as simpler or much simpler to use than their traditional pest control program on squash, while one grower said that using a trap crop was a little more complex. All growers gave the following PTC benefits the highest possible rating (3): reduced spray time/expense, reduced risk from pest damage/improved crop quality, and easier/faster pest detection (improved monitoring) (Table 1). A majority of the program participants also gave the highest possible rating to these additional benefits: reduced pesticide use, easier harvesting schedules [reduced re-entry intervals (REI)/day-to-harvest restrictions (dh)], reduced potential for residues at harvest, reduced impact on the environment/land/water, and improved crop farm profitability (Table 1).
All program participants said that they were either very satisfied (67%) or thrilled (33%) with the overall performance of the trap crop system, and all final comments about PTC were positive. All growers rated the training program as excellent and stated that they would continue using the summer squash PTC system in the future. SummaryMany integrated pest management (IPM) programs are too complex or time-intensive for busy producers to use and often require an entire book or manual to explain (Boucher & Ashley, 2001). Simpler pest management solutions capable of controlling multiple pests, reducing pesticide use, increasing farm profitability, and increasing IPM implementation are needed. Perimeter trap cropping represents a first step towards restructuring and simplifying the pest management system. Connecticut growers who used PTC to protect commercial summer squash plantings found that the system succeeded in improving and simplifying pest management while providing numerous "hidden" benefits. These growers reduced insecticide use by 93% by switching to a perimeter trap crop, supplemented with border sprays. This technology is inexpensive, accessible, and applicable to farm operations of variable size on multiple crops. Acknowledgment Funding for this project was provided by USDA CSREES NE SARE and NE IPM competitive grant programs. The following Connecticut growers were instrumental in the design and implementation of the NE SARE grant proposal and/or participated in the demonstration project: Steve Bengtson, Nelson Cecarelli, Gordon Burson, Randy Blackmer, Rick Vinal, and Dave Dougan. ReferencesAluja, M., Jimenez, A., Camino, M., Pinero, J., Aldana, L., Caserjon, V., & Valdes, M. E. (1997). Habitat manipulation to reduce papaya fruit fly (diptera: tephritidae) damage: Orchard design, use of trap crops and border trapping. Journal of Economic Entomology, 90: 1567-1576. Boucher, T. J., & Ashley, R. A. (Editors). (2001). Northeast pepper Integrated Pest Management (IPM) manual. University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System Publication. Boucher, T. J., Ashley, R., Durgy, R., Sciabarrasi, M., & Calderwood, W. (2003). Managing the pepper maggot (diptera: tephritidae) using perimeter trap cropping. Journal of Economic Entomology, 96(2): 420-432. Brewer, G. J., & Schmidt, G. (1995). Trap cropping to manage the red sunflower seed weevil in oilseed sunflower. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 10: 184-187. Mitchell, E. R., Hu, G., & Johanowicz, D. (2000). Management of diamondback moth (lepidoptera: plutellidae) in cabbage using collard as a trap crop. HortScience, 35: 875-879.
Priority Water Issues in the Pacific NorthwestRobert L. Mahler Robert Simmons Fred Sorensen J. Ronald Miner IntroductionWater quality has been a priority issue for Extension since 1990. At that time, then President George H. Bush created a national Water Quality Initiative (WQI) within the United States Department of Agriculture (Shepard, 2002). This initiative stressed solving water quality problems on a watershed scale through cooperation with other federal and state agencies (Huter, Mahler, Brooks, Lolley, & Halloway, 1999). The initiative eventually resulted in formula funding passed through to land-grant institutions under the authority of the Smith-Lever Act. In 2000, the national water quality program was refocused to emphasize regional rather than state-by-state education of our clientele. This change at the federal level required us to assess our current water quality programs in Alaska, Idaho, , and Washington, and to find common programming themes that would be useful to clientele across the four-state region. Consequently, the water quality coordinators of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington developed a region-wide water issues survey for our clientele to collect base line information documenting public awareness and attitudes toward water issues. The base line data collected in this survey could then be used to determine priorities and, in the future, gauge educational progress in all phases of our water quality programming efforts. Materials and MethodsA 50-question survey was designed to assess public attitudes about water issues in the Pacific Northwest. The specific questions investigated in this article dealt with (1) the importance of specific water issues and (2) water quantity. The survey questions evaluated in this article were as follows: Issue: Importance of Water Issues
Issue: Water Quantity Q-11. Do you regard water quantity (having enough water) as a water problem in the area where you live? (check one box) □ No □ Probably not □ I don't know □ Probably □ Definitely Q-12. Rank the following water uses from most (1) to least (5) important to you. (use 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 only once) ___ Power generation ___ Wildlife (salmon, wetlands) ___ Irrigation ___ Recreation ___ Drinking / Human use In addition, demographic information, including state of residence, community size, zip code, length of time residing in the region, gender, age, and educational level was also collected from survey respondents. Based on statistical advice to obtain a representative sample, a target of 900 residents of the Pacific Northwest was chosen as the sample size population. Surveys were sent to residents of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington on a proportional population basis. Residents from each state were randomly selected from phonebooks and switchboard.com. Surveys were actually sent to 1,888 residents; however, 114 were returned by the post office as being undeliverable. Consequently, the actual sample population was 1,774. The survey process was designed to receive a completed survey return rate in excess of 50%. If more than 877 surveys were returned completed, then sampling error could be assumed to be less than ±5% (Dillman, 2000; Salant & Dillman, 1994). Three mailings were used to achieve this return rate. The first mailing, which took place in January 2002, included the water issues survey form, a business reply envelope, and a cover letter that:
The second mailing occurred 5 weeks later (March 2002) and consisted of a postcard that stressed the importance of the survey and remind the respondent to fill out and return the survey sent out in the first mailing. 5 weeks later (May 2002), the third mailing was sent to residents who did not respond to the first or second mailing. This mailing included a reminder letter, another copy of the water issues survey, and a business reply envelope. Survey answers were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel. Missing data was assigned the number nine on the coding system and was excluded from the analysis. The data were analyzed at two levels using SPSS (Norusis, 1986). The first level of analysis was a basic data summary. This analysis showed both the total number and percentage of respondents that answered each question with a specific answer. The second level of analysis involved using cross-tabulation, or contingency tables, to isolate how specific subgroups of survey respondents (e.g., demographic groups such as gender and education level) related to specific questions. Significance (P<0.05) was tested using a chi-square distribution (Babbie, 1983). Results and DiscussionThe water issues survey achieved a return rate of 52.3% (928 either fully or partially completed and returned out of 1,774 surveys). The individual state response ranged from 50.6 to 57.6% (Table 1). Fifty-six percent of the survey respondents were male. Over 32% of survey respondents lived in communities of more than 100,000 people. Conversely, 18% of respondents lived in towns with less than 7,000 people. Thirty-five percent of respondents had lived in the Pacific Northwest all of their lives. Ninety-one percent of survey respondents were high school graduates. Overall, the demographics of the survey respondents (except for gender) closely reflected the actual demographics of the region.
Water IssuesRespondents were asked to describe each of 10 water issues as not important, somewhat important, very important, extremely important, or having no opinion. When the very important and extremely important responses were added together (high priority), the majority of respondents considered all 10 water issues as having a high priority (Table 2).
Over 90% of respondents considered clean drinking water, clean rivers, and clean groundwater as high priority. An additional 84% of survey respondents indicated that having enough water for agriculture was high priority despite the fact that over 80% of Pacific Northwest residents live in urban areas (United States Department of Commerce, 2002). Over two-thirds of Pacific Northwest residents indicated that water for power generation, water for economic development, loss of wetlands, prevention of salmon extinction, and watershed restoration were high priority (Table 2). Water for recreation (58%) received the smallest majority from the residents. The demographic factors of occupation and education level did not affect how people viewed water issues. However, gender, age, length of residence in the region, community size, and state of residence did influence answers to at least one question. State of residence had a significant impact on how respondents answered the survey regarding the prevention of salmon extinction. Approximately 84, 71, 66, and 59% of residents of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho said preventing salmon extinction was a high priority, respectively. This difference is understandable because salmon are culturally important to many Alaskans. Conversely, salmon are less important from both cultural and economic viewpoints to many residents of Idaho, largely due to dams on the Snake River system. Community size had an impact on only one of the 10 water issues evaluated. Respondents from larger communities (> 25,000) were more likely to consider having enough water for economic development a high priority issue than respondents living in small communities (< 25,000). Based on this survey, a higher percentage of females than males viewed clean groundwater, prevention of salmon extinction, wetland protection, water for power generation, water for agriculture, and watershed restoration as high priority (Table 3). Even though this gender gap was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level for the other four water issues, the trend was apparent.
Age of respondent had a significant effect on answers to two survey questions. A higher percentage of younger respondents than older respondents viewed wetland protection as a high priority issue (Table 4). Conversely, senior citizens were more likely than younger people to view having enough water for power generation a high priority (Table 4).
Length of residence in the Pacific Northwest affected the response to the issues of salmon extinction, wetland protection, and water for economic development (Table 5). Over 80% of respondents who have lived in the Pacific Northwest for less than 5 years considered salmon extinction and wetland protection high priority issues. However, only about 60% of the long-time residents considered these issues high priority. In contrast, long-time residents were more likely to consider water for economic development a higher priority than newcomers to the region.
Water QuantityA majority of survey respondents felt that water quantity issues were not a local problem ("no, not a problem" + "probably not a problem" answers) in Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington (Table 6). However, the demographic factors of gender, state of residence, length of residency in the Pacific Northwest, education, and age did affect the response to this question. To evaluate differences due to demographics, the answers of "no" and "probably not" were pooled as "not a problem."
Males were more likely than females (65.1 vs. 57.8%) to conclude that water quantity issues were not a problem in their residential locality (Table 7). Residents of Alaska were more likely to conclude that water quantity was not a problem. Conversely, Idaho residents were more likely to conclude that water quantity issues may be a local problem. These state results are logical because, on a per capita basis, Alaska is the most water-rich state, while Idaho receives the least amount of precipitation.
Long-term residents of the Pacific Northwest were more likely to conclude that water quantity issues were not commonly a local problem compared to people that had moved into the region in the last 10 years (Table 7). Residents with a high school diploma or less were also more likely to conclude that water quantity was not a local problem. Age also affected how people viewed water quantity on a local basis. In general, older respondents were more likely to conclude that water quantity is not a major local problem. Survey respondents were also asked to rank power generation, wildlife, irrigation, recreation, and drinking water from most important (1) to least important (5). The lower the overall score, the more important the use. Overall, survey respondents ranked drinking water as the most important water quantity use (Table 8). In fact, over 78% of respondents ranked drinking water as the most important water use. Conversely, only 6% of respondents ranked drinking water as the least important use. Survey respondents ranked wildlife, power production, and irrigation as having similar levels of importance, although they were considered less important than drinking water. They were considered to be of higher importance than recreation (Table 8). Recreational use of water was ranked as the lowest priority.
Summary and ConclusionsThe water issues survey provided us with a wealth of information about public attitudes toward water issues in the Pacific Northwest. Even though differences were seen among states on some issues, it is noteworthy that there is much commonality in water attitudes among states. This commonality makes regional water educational programming logical and efficient for Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. The key findings of this survey included the following.
Acknowledgement We dedicate this paper to J. Ronald Miner, longtime water quality coordinator at Oregon State University, who died while this article was in the review process. Ron was an outstanding scientist and cooperator. His contributions to Oregon State University, the Pacific Northwest, and the national water quality program were extensive and outstanding. He will be sorely missed. ReferencesBabbie, E. (1983). The practice of social research. 3rd edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont, CA. pp. 359, 424. Dillman, D. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys. 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons. 464 pp. New York, NY. Huter, L. R., Mahler, R. L., Brooks, L. E., Lolley, B. A. & Halloway, L. (1999). Groundwater and wellhead protection in the HUA. University of Idaho Bulletin No. 811. Moscow, ID. Norusis, M. J. (1986). The SPSS guide to data analysis. SPSS, Inc. Chicago, Illinois. pp. 233-251. Salant, P. & Dillman, D. (1994). How to conduct your own survey. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 10-55. Shepard, R. (2002). Evaluating extension-based water resource outreach programs: Are we meeting the challenge? Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002february/a3.html United States Department of Commerce. (2002). U. S. population data. U. S. Census Bureau. Available at: http://www.census.gov
Healthy Living in the Pacific Islands: Results of a Focus Group Process to Identify Perceptions of Health and Collaboration in the U.S. Affiliated Pacific IslandsNicky Davison Randall Workman Yihe Goh Daida Rachel Novotny Donna Ching BackgroundPacific Island health systems must deal with health conditions typical of both developed and developing countries (Feasley, 1998). The U.S. affiliated Pacific islands are in transition from "developing" to "developed," having gone through dramatic socio-economic transformations since the end of World War II, and their peoples have begun to experience the major demographic and epidemiological transitions that accompany modern social change. Even though life expectancies in the island jurisdictions remain below levels in developed nations, demographic transitions in the islands have decreased rates of infant mortality, and people are living longer today than in the past. As a consequence, population growth pressures are high, and communities are predominately composed of young people, with their own particular health needs. Moreover, while disease levels are higher than U.S. indicators, epidemiological transitions in the islands reveal a shift of health problems away from common infectious diseases (influenza, tuberculosis, etc.) and toward chronic and non-communicable health problems (e.g., heart disease, diabetes, and cancer). The Islands suffer a disproportionate burden of ailments, including cancer, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, fetal and infant under nutrition, and adult obesity (Coyne, 2000). In addition to genetic predisposition, these diseases are greatly influenced by behavioral factors, many of which are life style habits that begin in peoples' early childhood and adolescence (Martorell, 2001; Barker, 2001) Figure 1.
SOURCE: Pacific health dialog: Pacific peoples of New Zealand. Journal of Health and Clinical Medicine for the Pacific 4(2). 1997. Purpose and ObjectivesThe Healthy Living in the Pacific Islands (HLPI) initiative was the culmination of a series of meetings involving the Cooperative Extension Directors of the land-grant institutions in the U.S. affiliated Pacific (American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, State of Hawai'i, Palau, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands). The Directors sought to address concerns about the health and quality of life among Pacific Islanders. A Principal Investigator (Rachel Novotny) was identified and asked to develop a concept paper, which was reviewed and approved by directors at a meeting in July 2001. Following approval, the Principal Investigator then worked with the local land-grant colleges to identify Co-Principal Investigators (Co-PIs) at each site and brought them together in October 2001 for a further strategic planning session guided by an experienced facilitator. The Co-PIs were concerned that any approach should involve community members from the respective communities and should verify local community visions of healthy living, document their listing of problems, and confirm their strategies to improve their communities, implementing a "bottom-up" process, or a participatory community-based approach (Malek, 2002; Nyden, 2003; RSC 2002). This was a formidable challenge because the target communities are spread across 4,000 miles of a geographic area larger than the continental United States (Figure 1). As a group, the Co-PIs decided that a focus group methodology was an appropriate tool to identify local health concerns, possible community actions to improve health, and perceptions of collaboration within the diverse island communities. This information would then be used for program planning and design. Although originally used as a market research tool to assess people's preferences and reactions to new products, the focus group process has become a key social science methodology for program planning and development (Krueger, 2000; Gamon, 1992). The interviewing process for collecting qualitative data was ideal for the HLPI planning group, where a single methodology, applied across the multi-lingual, multi-cultural populations was needed. Focus groups are a frequently used need assessment methodology for planning of programs to ethnic minorities and diverse, multi-cultural communities (Duncan, 1999; Ewert, 1994; Hockenberry Meyer, 1999; Hobbs, 2001; Malek, 2002) and are suited to the group/community-focused cultures of the Pacific. The focus group tool then forms an integral part of community-based participatory research, which has been described by O'Toole, Aaron, Chin, Horowitz, and Tyson (2003) as being able to "make meaningful contributions to improving health and well-being of traditionally disenfranchised population groups and communities." MethodsTo standardize the methodology across the multi-site project, the University of Hawaii HLPI staff sent each island jurisdiction guidelines for conducting their focus groups. Focus groups were defined to the Co-PIs as: "a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research." It was suggested that one group of community leaders and one group of homemakers be selected. The recommended number of people per group was to be six to 10, with sessions to last from 1 to 2 hours. Neutral locations were advised for avoiding either negative or positive associations with a particular site or building. The Co-PIs in each jurisdiction then applied the guidelines to their island situation and conducted one or more focus groups using a standardized set of four question themes agreed upon at the first strategic planning conference. These were: Question 1. What is health to you? Probes: How do you recognize it? What does it look like? How does it feel? Question 2. What is collaboration to you? Probes: How do you recognize it? What does it look like? How does it feel? Question 3. What are the key health problems in our community? Probes: What are the main reasons that we have this health problem? Question 4. What would be effective community actions to improve health? Probes: Who would have to do what to improve health in the community? How could these actions be accomplished? Facilitators were warned against selecting groups that were either too homogeneous or heterogeneous, which might limit the expression of diverse opinions. There was variation across the six sites in implementing the guidelines because each community had unique inter-agency and community networks. The only achievable standardization was in the methodology and questions discussed. Focus groups were conducted in the local language and recorded on audiotape for subsequent transcription and translation. The outcome was that the HLPI Co-PIs conducted a total of 13 focus group sessions (Table 1) involving 127 Pacific Islander or mixed Pacific Islander/Asians from six Pacific Island jurisdictions.
Each Co-PI processed, transcribed and translated the recordings of their respective focus group sessions. For each question, in each focus group session, co-investigators identified one or more topics or "Themes" which generalized key points that were verbalized by the participants in their discussions. For each theme, they then identified one or more "quotes" representative for that key point and topic. ResultsAt a strategic planning meeting involving all the Co-PIs and facilitated by a trained group facilitator, the community focus group data and analyses of themes were shared by each Co-PI in oral presentations with summary handouts. The discussion and development of a common understanding of insights gained from the focus group process was integrated directly into the strategic planning process being guided by the facilitator. The sharing of the focus group experiences, and the substance of the resultant findings played a key role in how Co-PIs designed the final program framework.
DiscussionA comparison of the results to the question "What is health?" (Table 2) across the range of the six sites identified several common themes. These included not only the concept of physical health, but also mental and spiritual health, the idea of working with others to maintain and prevent ill health, and also environmental health. The environment and ecological system were conceptualized by the Pacific Islanders as a part of how they define "health." The idea of "economic health" articulated by the Hawaii focus groups also conceptualizes the overall social and economic health of the community as part of a holistic view of personal "health." A comparison of the responses to the third question across the range of the six sites listed such things as "specific chronic diseases," "drug use" (including alcohol and tobacco), "diabetes," and "high blood pressure"--all health consequences aggravated by, if not resulting from, life style habits. Interestingly, the list includes life style habits both integral within some of the cultures (see themes for Chuuk- FSM: "fat is beautiful," Saipan-CNMI: "overeating," and Guam), as well as life style habits acquired from the external world (see themes for the Marshall Islands: "selling local food to buy imported" and Hawaii: "McDonald's is cheap but healthy food is expensive"). The focus group discussions on "what is collaboration?" and " what actions would improve health?" both generated the identification of similar program approaches, which can be noted in several of the sites. Across the six sites, the themes speak of collaboration as "building trust and friendship," "sharing and maximizing resources," "listening and sharing ideas to make progress," "working together for a common goal," and "discovering and developing assets." It is interesting, too, that many of the cultures have a vernacular word for collaboration within the community, e.g., "fengen" in Chuuk. In the strategic planning discussions following presentations, various co-investigators commented on how the focus group findings "confirmed" and provided examples for the project mission statement and "validated" the groups' listing of underlying values. The analysis of questions about collaboration and community actions guided the decisions made in structuring the program framework, with optional program strategies for achieving each objective. The focus groups spoke of education, of working together as a community, of community based activities. These then became the strategies to be used in the project planning process: a) health education communications/media, b) community-based interventions, c) institutional capacity building, and d) training and policy development. These project action strategies were made a part of the program-planning framework to provide alternative approaches for specific, annual project plans. Conclusions and Future DirectionsThe focus group methodology approach worked well in allowing these diverse communities to articulate their own perceptions of health and collaboration while being able to retain the central common themes necessary for program planning. The focus group approach can be used to guide the planning and project implementation process by allowing the communities to communicate their specific needs and concerns across a wider range of health, social, and economic issues. Despite the many differences in the communities across this vast geographic region, there is a large degree of commonality in the way the cultures perceive "health" and in ways of working together ("to collaborate") to overcome some of the existing health disparities. Empowered by the focus group findings, the co-investigators were able to develop an "umbrella" program framework, within which each individual site could design specific programs, that responded to the specific needs of the individual communities while retaining the common program goal of: "reducing disparities in the prevalence of chronic diseases among Pacific Islander peoples by addressing the multiplicity of influential factors and respecting cultural values, using community-based, holistic, collaborative and sustainable approaches in our Pacific Island communities." Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the other Co-Principal Investigators on the HLPI Project, without whose work article paper would not have been possible: Julia Alfred (COM/Marshall Islands Ministry of Health), Eric Enos (UH/Wai'anae Community), Floria James (NMC), and Ansina Kony (COM-Chuuk). Funding for this project was provided by USDA-CREES Grant Number 00-38826-9180 (Amendment #2) through the Agricultural Development in the American Pacific (ADAP) Project. ReferencesBarker, D. (2001). The malnourished baby and infant. Br Med Bull. 2001: 60:69-88. Coyne, T. (2000). Lifestyle diseases in Pacific communities. Technical paper no. 219. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia. Duncan, S. F., & Marotz-Baden, R. (1999). Using focus groups to identify rural participant needs in balancing work and family education. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february/rb1.html Ewert, M. D., & King Rice, J. A. (1994). Managing diversity within Cooperative Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994august/a1.html Feasley, J. C., & Lawrence, R. S. (eds) (1998). Pacific partnerships for health: Charting a course for the 21st century. National Academy Press, Washington, DC Gamon, J. A. (1992). Focus groups--A needs assessment tool. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992spring/tt2.html Hobbs, B. B. (2001). Diversifying the volunteer base: Latinos and volunteerism. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a1.html Hockenberry Meyer, M. (1999). Native Americans' interest in horticulture. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february/a4.html Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, California. Malek, F. (2002). Using the focus group process to assess needs of a growing Latino population. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002february/tt2.html Martorell, R., Stein, A., & Scroeder, D. (2001). Early nutrition and later adiposity. J Nutr. 13: 874S-880S. Nyden, P. (2003). Academic incentives for faculty participation in community- based participatory research. Journal of General Internal Medicine Vol. 18 (7) 576-585. O'Toole, T., Aaron, K., Chin, M., Horowitz, C., & Tyson, F. (2003). Community based participatory research: Opportunities, challenges, and the need for a common language. Journal of General Internal Medicine Vol. 18 (7) 592-594. RSC. Royal Society of Canada (2002). Guidelines for participatory research in health promotion. Retrieved March 14, 2002 from: http://www.ihpr.ubc.ca/guidelines.html
Body-Image, Self-Esteem, and Nutrition Concerns of Parents of 6th- and 7th-Grade StudentsCarolyn Dunn Kristine Kelsey Wayne Matthews L. Melissa Sledge IntroductionBody image has been described as a combination of how accurately one perceives his/her body size, the feelings this perception creates, and the behaviors that are initiated or avoided because of these feelings (Heinberg, Wood, & Thompson, 1996). The age at which distortions in body image develop is beginning at alarmingly younger ages than in the past (Koff & Rierdan, 1991; Maloney, McGuire, Daniels, & Specker, 1989; Mellin, Irwin, & Scully, 1992; Sands, Tricker, Sherman, Armatas, & Maschette, 1997; Thelen, Powell, Lawrence, & Kuhnert, 1992; Wardle & Marsland, 1990). In a study of pre-adolescent children aged 10 and 11, girls were already demonstrating a desire to be thinner (Sands, et al., 1997). Results from a study by Koff and Rierdan (1991) revealed that of 206 sixth grade girls, 83% responded that they diet occasionally and 17% that they diet frequently. To combat the rise in unhealthy eating patterns and poor body image in youth, the root of the problem must be determined. Knowledge gain alone is not enough to address these issues (Killen, et al., 1993). Body image and self-esteem are multi-faceted issues, thus a simple solution does not exist. In order to fully address the issues of self-esteem and body image, parents, teachers and youth must be involved in creating meaningful solutions. While the schools can play a role, parents have a major role to play in addressing this issue. The purpose of the study discussed here was to ascertain concerns of parents related to their children's body image, self-esteem, and eating behaviors. This information will be used to assist Extension professionals as they work with youth and parents in these areas of concern. MethodsA questionnaire was developed to assess parents' opinions on children's body perceptions and self-esteem and their views on the best ways to teach children about positive body image, self-esteem, and healthy eating. Questions were based on results of four focus groups with 6th grade children, one focus group with 6th grade teachers, and input from family and consumer science Extension specialists and nutritionists. The focus groups with students and teachers provided basic information about topics of interest and concern with respect to body image and self esteem. The parent survey included demographic information (age, gender, race, education, income, marital status, number of children living at home) and questions about parents' perceptions of their child's body image and self-esteem. The parent survey was pre-tested with 25 parents to determine its clarity as well as its appropriateness and breadth of content and was revised accordingly. The survey was distributed to Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) Agents with the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service across the state. Agents were instructed to distribute the survey along with a letter explaining the purpose of the project to parents of children in either the 6th or 7th grade. Agents used a convenience sample of all parents with which they worked who had children in the targeted age range. Surveys included a memo explaining the purpose of the study and indicated that all responses would be anonymous. Data analysis was performed using the software application, SPSSX 7.5 (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000). Analyses included descriptive statistics, one-tailed t-tests, and Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric tests. Results and DiscussionA supply of surveys were mailed to 110 FCS Agents for potential distribution, and 419 of these were in fact distributed to adults who were known by the agents to have children in either the 6th or 7th grade. Two hundred eighteen respondents (return rate = 52%) returned the completed questionnaire to the investigators in a pre-addressed, stamped envelope. Respondents to the parent survey (n=218) were primarily female (90%). Parents were asked what factors affect how their child feels about his/her body. They were allowed to select more than one answer. The number one influence as perceived by parents was peers (92% indicating that it influenced their child's attitude about their body), followed closely by parental influence (88%). Other researchers have found similar results, thus concluding that numerous factors (media, family, friends, etc.) influence a child's development of body image (Feldman, Feldman, & Goodman, 1988; Field, et al., 1999; Levine, Smolak, & Hayden, 1994; Winn, Reif, & White, 1997). When the gender of the child was taken into account, a significant difference was noted (p<.05) in influence of relatives and influence of magazines, with parents of girls observing a stronger influence from both of these sources. Other researchers concur with the observation of parents in the current study. Not only do a high percentage (60%) of girls aged 10-14 turn to fashion magazines as a prime source for information on physical appearance and dieting behaviors, but a positive correlation exists between reading fashion magazines and dieting (Levine, et al., 1994; Field, et al., 1999). When asked how satisfied their children were with their own body weight, more parents of girls indicated that their children thought they were too heavy (38% vs. 18% for boys, p<.05). This is consistent with what was found in the Youth Risk Behavior Survey that indicated that girls were more likely than boys to try to lose weight or to think they were overweight even if they were not (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000). Parents were asked if they were concerned about six different issues: body image, physical activity, nutrition, eating disorders, self-esteem, and depression. Parents were mostly concerned about nutrition and self-esteem (75%), followed by physical activity (65%) and body image (64%). These data are presented in Table 1. Parents were less concerned about eating disorders (48%) and depression (52%).
Parents were asked what is the best way to teach your child about positive body image, self-esteem and proper nutrition? They could check as many answers as applied. Parents indicated that programs at school (78%) and materials for use at home (64%) were the best way to educate children about these issues (Figure 1). Figure 1.
When asked what format would be of most interest for free in-home materials, video was by far the most popular (64%). None of the other possible formats were acceptable in large numbers: newsletter (19%), audiotape (1%), computer program (5%),Web site (4%), don't want or need (7%). These data indicate that there is substantial interest on the part of parents for in-home materials to inform them about body image, self-esteem, and nutrition. However, there still is the perception that this is a topic that should be addressed in the school environment. Data were examined with respect to education, race, and income of the parents. There were no differences seen in the pattern of answers with respect to education. When race was examined, several differences were found. African American parents were more concerned about depression and eating disorders (p<.05) than other parents in the sample. This is consistent with recent data that suggests that African American young women may exhibit more eating disorder pathology than previously expected (Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992; Striegel-Moore, Schreiber, et al., 2000; Striegel-Moore, Wilfley, et al., 2000; Yanovski, 1993). Historically, problems associated with poor body image were seen mostly in Caucasian youth. However, this survey revealed that both Caucasian and African American parents were concerned to a similar extent about body image. Other studies have revealed these similarities as well (Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992; Hill, Draper, & Stack, 1994; Mendelson & White, 1982; Robinson, et al., 1996; Wardle & Marsland, 1990). Problems with body image are no longer reserved for Caucasian females. Caucasian parents thought movies, peers, and parents had more influence on how their child felt about their body than did African American parents (p<.05). To examine income, a variable was created using household income and number of children in the home. Respondents were then placed in two groups. Group 1, low-income, was classified as <20K for household income per child (n=93); Group 2, higher-income, was classified as >20K for household income per child (n=113). (Note: 12 respondents did not answer the income questions.) The low-income group wanted home materials and was more concerned about depression in their children (p<.05) than the high-income group. The high-income group wanted schools to teach about positive body image, self-esteem, and proper nutrition more than did the low-income group. ApplicationAdolescence is a time of rapid change with respect to social, physical, and emotional development. Creating meaningful solutions to address body image, self esteem, and healthy eating is of great importance for parents of teens. These data indicate that parents are very interested and concerned about issues of body image and self-esteem for their children. While parents believe that schools are the best place for children to learn about these issues, they also indicated an interest in receiving in-home materials, specifically video. Extension professionals play a vital role in working with parents and youth on self-esteem, body image, and healthy eating. Schools are often sought out to address these issues; however, if education for youth is not coupled with education for parents and other family members, it will fail to achieve maximum effectiveness. Extension professionals can educate parents and youth, as well as begin dialog within the family, about these complicated issues, e.g., lesson plans could be developed for Junior High School teachers with follow-up materials sent home for parents that would promote such dialog. Extension professionals can be leaders in educating families about these issues. Extension programs should be created to address the influence of peers and the media on body image and self-esteem. There is a need for curricula that addresses these issues and that includes both school and family components. School materials that are already in place can be expanded to involve outreach to parents. ReferencesCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). CDC surveillance summaries, MMWR 2000;49 (No. SS-5). Feldman, W., Feldman, E., & Goodman, J. T. (1988). Culture versus biology: Children's attitudes toward thinness and fatness. Pediatrics, 81 (2), 190-194. Field, A. E., Cheung, L., Wolf, A. M., Herzog, D.B., Gortmaker, S. L., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics, 103 (3), E36. Gustafson-Larson, A. M., & Terry, R. D. (1992). Weight-related behaviors and concerns of fourth-grade children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92 (7), 818-822. Heinberg, L. J., Wood, K. C., & Thompson, J. K. (1996). Body image. In Rickert, VI (Ed), Adolescent nutrition: Assessment and management (pp.136-152). New York: Chapman and Hall. Hill, A. J., Draper, E., & Stack, J. (1994). A weight on children's minds: Body shape dissatisfactions at 9-years old. International Journal of Obesity, 18, 383-389. Killen, J. D., Taylor, C. B., Hammer, L. D., Litt, I., Wilson, D.M., Rich, T., Hayward, C., Simmonds, B., Kraemer, H., & Varady, A (1993). An attempt to modify unhealthful eating attitudes and weight regulation practices of young adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 13 (4), 369-384. Koff, E., & Rierdan, J. (1991). Perceptions of weight and attitudes toward eating in early adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 12, 307-312. Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Hayden, H. (1994). The relation of sociocultural factors to eating attitudes and behaviors among middle school girls. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14 (4), 471-490. Maloney, M. J., McGuire, J., Daniels, S. R., & Specker, B. (1989). Dieting behavior and eating attitudes in children. Pediatrics, 84 (4), 482-487. Marcus, M. D. (1993). Binge eating in obesity. In Fairburn CG and Wilson GT (Eds.), Binge eating (pp. 77-96). New York: Guilford Press. Mellin, L. M., Irwin, C. E., & Scully, S. (1992). Prevalence of disordered eating in girls: A survey of middle-class children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92 (7), 851-853. Mendelson, B. K., & White, D. R. (1982). Relation between body-esteem and self-esteem of obese and normal children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 899-905. Prentice-Hall, Inc. (2000). Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Robinson, T. N., Killen, J. D., Litt, I. F., Hammer, L. D., Wilson, D. M., Haydel, K. F., Hayward, C., & Taylor, C. B. (1996). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction: Are Hispanic and Asian girls at increased risk for eating disorders? Journal of Adolescent Health, 19, 384-393. Sands, R., Tricker, J., Sherman, C., Armatas, C., & Maschette, W. (1997). Disordered eating patterns, body image, self-esteem, and physical activity in preadolescent school children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 21 (2), 159-166. Striegel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Lo, A., Crawford, P., Obarzanek, E., & Rodin, J. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms in a cohort of 11 to 16-year-old black and white girls: The NHLBI Growth and Health Study, International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27:49-66. Striegel-Moore, R. H., Wilfley, D. E., Pike, K. M., Dohm, F. A., & Fairburn, C. G. (2000). Recurrent binge eating in black American women. Archives of Family Medicine, 9:830-87. Thelen, M. H., Powell, A. L., Lawrence, C., & Kuhnert, M. E. (1992). Eating and body image concerns among children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21 (1), 41-46. Wardle, J., & Marsland, L. (1990). Adolescent concerns about weight and eating; A social-developmental perspective. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 34 (4), 377-391. Winn, K. I., Reif, L., & White, J. M. Perception of family appraisal as an influence on body image. Paper presented November, 1997 at the 59th Annual Meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Arlington VA. Yanovski, S. Z. (1993). Binge eating disorder: Current knowledge and future directions. Obesity Research, 1:306-318.
Parents' Perceptions of Life Skills Gained by Youth Participating in the 4-H Beef ProjectChris T. Boleman Scott R. Cummings Gary E. Briers Department of Agricultural Education IntroductionWhat life skills are youth gaining by participating in the 4-H beef project? According to Boyd, Herring, and Briers (1992), the development of life skills through experiential learning is the cornerstone of the 4-H program. Several studies have been conducted to determine benefits youth gain from participating in 4-H livestock projects. Ward's (1996) study of 4-H alumni in New Jersey revealed that 4-H participation built seven life skills, including responsibility, relating to others, spirit of inquiry, decision making, public speaking, maintaining records, and building self esteem. Another study by Rusk, Martin, Talbert, & Balshweid (2002) concluded that the Indiana 4-H livestock judging program has positively affected the lives of its participants. Purpose and ObjectivesThe purpose of the discussed here study was to determine the life skills gained by youth participating in the 4-H beef project in Texas by asking parents to address the life skill development of their children. The objectives were more specifically defined as:
Methods and ProceduresThe study was approved by the Institutional Review Board-Human Subjects in Research, Texas A&M University (project # 2002-307). The study used an ex post facto approach and a correlational design. The purpose of the correlational research was to evaluate the relationships between variables by using correlational statistics (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). The target population was defined as parents of 4-H youth participating in the 4-H beef project. Texas 4-H (2000) revealed that there were 6,347 youth who completed an enrollment form and said that they had intentions during 2001 to own a beef project. Parents of these 6,347 youth were considered the accessible population for this study. These youth were described as 4-H members ranging in age from 8-19 and were in 3rd to 12th grade in school. Youth names and mailing addresses were generated from the Texas 4-H enrollment report and placed into a data base management system. This database served as the sampling frame for this study. A simple random sample was used as the sampling procedure for the study. Therefore, a 5% random sample was drawn from these 6,347 names in the database. A mailed questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire was designed to determine the perceived life skills gained from youth participating in the 4-H beef project. The specific life skills measured are listed below.
Respondents were asked to provide their perceptions of the magnitude for life skill development as a result of raising the 4-H beef project. The scale was slightly modified from Rusk et al. (2002) and was defined as 1 = Not Influential At All, 2 = Mildly Influential, 3 = Moderately Influential, 4 = Highly Influential, and 5 = Essential. A second section was included to ask background information and demographic information. The questionnaire was developed with input from 14 Texas Cooperative Extension employees at Texas A&M University and one individual from Texas Tech University. More specifically, these individuals included: three faculty members in the Department of Agricultural Education, three faculty members from the Department of Animal Science, one faculty member from the Department of Agricultural Economics, three faculty members from the 4-H & Youth Development Program, four County Extension Agents-Agricultural and Natural Resources, and one faculty from the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University. As suggested by Gall et al. (1996), face and content validity were assessed by these 15 individuals. Twenty-five students from Texas A&M University enrolled in Animal Science 315 (Principles of Livestock Evaluation) were used to pilot the instrument. These respondents evaluated the instrument to assess for face validity. Several noted instructions and wording that were unclear to the reader. These students were also asked to complete the instrument and turn it in to the researcher with only the instructions provided in the document. Reliability (internal consistency) of the life skill development scale was estimated from these data. SPSS 11.0 for Windows was used for analysis. A Cronbach's coefficient alpha was computed to be .87 for the 13 statements in the life skill development section. As a result of this pilot test, final corrections were made, and the instrument was deemed ready for mailing. Procedures outlined in Dillman's Tailored Design Method were used for mail survey implementation and data collection (Dillman, 2000). A pre-notice letter was mailed to the parents of each youth in the original database. The purpose of this letter was to alert parents of these youth that a survey would be arriving shortly for them to complete. Also, the Assistant Director-County Programs for Texas Cooperative Extension sent an e-mail message to all County Extension Agents in 4-H and Agricultural and Natural Resources to make them aware of the survey that was being mailed directly to parents of youth participating in the 4-H beef project. Questionnaires, cover letters signed by the researcher and the Assistant Director for 4-H and Youth for the Texas 4-H Program, and business reply envelopes were sent to each parent. Each questionnaire was identified with an identification number keyed to each of the participants. This number was used to identify and follow-up with nonrespondents. Two follow-up notifications were sent to participants. After 6 weeks, a second complete packet was mailed to each nonrespondent. Throughout survey implementation, returned letters and packets with incorrect addresses were updated, where possible, and re-mailed. Handling Nonresponse ErrorTo handle nonresponse error, the researcher used procedures outlined by Lindner, Murphy, and Briers (2001). This encompassed contacting nonrespondents to compare their data to respondents. A phone survey was developed to gather data for comparison. Thirty parents of youth participating in the 4-H beef project were randomly selected from the nonrespondent database for participation. After random selection, the researcher contacted parents to interview using a phone survey. After data collection was complete, comparisons between respondents and nonrespondents were computed. Differences between respondents and nonrespondents were examined using an independent samples t test. No significant differences (p > .05) were calculated comparing respondents and nonrespondents. Data AnalysisSPSS 11.0 for Windows software was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize data. Frequencies, percentages, central tendency measures, and variability were used to describe the data. To determine the extent of the relationships between parents of youth participating in the 4-H beef projects and the life skills gained, inferential correlational or comparative techniques were used. These techniques included analysis of variance. Confidence intervals and tests for statistical significance were set a priori at the 0.05 level. ResultsOne-hundred thirty-three of 317 surveys were returned (41.9%) from respondents. However, of these 133, only 89 were used for analysis. Several were returned blank or with a note saying they could not provide responses to the questions asked in the mailed survey. DemographicsParticipants were parents of youth involved in the 4-H beef project. The data that were reported reflect the parents' responses to questions/statements concerning their children's participating in the 4-H beef project. Of the 89 respondents to the gender question, 43 (48.3%) were male, and 46 (51.7%) were female. The mean age of the 4-H youth was 14.92 years of age (SD = 2.9), with 53 of the 89 (59.6%) revealing that their child was 15 years or older. The mean for years of participating in the beef project was 5.00 (SD = 3.0). Parents indicated that the mean projects purchased by their child was 2.38 (SD = 1.58). They also said that their child owned these projects an average of 287.66 days (SD = 71.4) The last demographic-type question asked respondents to estimate the total number of hours per week their child worked with their beef projects. The categories provided were: 0 = 0 hours 1 = 1-4 hours, 2 = 5-8 hours, 3 = 9-12 hours, 4 = 13-16 hours, 5 = 17-20 hours, 6 = 21 or more hours per week. Of the 86 respondents, 44 (51.2%) said their children worked with their beef project either 5-8 hours or 9-12 hours per week. This was an even distribution, with each of these categories having a frequency of 22. Objective 1To determine the perceived life skills gained from youth participating in the 4-H beef project, 13 life skills were developed from previous studies by McCann and McCann (1992) and Rusk et al. (2002). The scale used for analysis was also used by McCann and McCann (1992) and Rusk et al. (2002). It was defined as: 1 = Not Influential At All, 2 = Mildly Influential, 3 = Moderately Influential, 4 = Highly Influential, 5 = Essential to the ultimate development of this attribute. Each of the projects was analyzed separately for life skill development. The 13 life skills were analyzed individually to reveal mean values and standard deviations (Table 1). Parents were asked to determine if participating in the 4-H beef project influenced the development of these attributes in their children. The rank order for the top five mean scores was: "accepting responsibility" (4.48, SD = .62), followed by "setting goals" (4.28, SD=.82), "develop self-discipline" (4.24, SD = .72), "self motivation" (4.17, SD = .69), and "knowledge of the livestock industry" (4.16, SD = .86). In addition, 54% of the respondents of the beef project survey said that the beef project was essential in the development of "accepting responsibility" for their children. These results for the life skill "accepting responsibility" are supported by similar findings noted by Ward (1996). Also, 47.8% of these respondents said that participating in the 4-H beef project was essential in teaching the life skill of "setting goals." An additional 38% said that participating in the 4-H beef project was essential in their children's "knowledge of the livestock industry." Rusk et al. (2002) found similar results in relation to the "knowledge of the livestock industry" life skill. However, Ward's (1996) conclusions pertaining to "ability to relate to others" were not consistent with this study. This study revealed a mean score of 3.84 (SD=.84) for the life skill, "ability to relate to others," ranking this life skill 10th among the 13 life skill statements. Different results were noted between this study and studies conducted by Ward (1996) and Vondy Wacker and Boyd (1992) for the life skill "develop and maintain records." This life skill revealed the second lowest mean response and the highest frequency for the "not influential at all" category.
Objective 2A Pearson product moment correlation was used to measure the relationship between life skill development and days of ownership of the 4-H beef project. No life skill yielded a significant relationship (p < .05) with ownership days. Objective 3A Pearson product moment correlation was used to measure the relationship between life skill development and years of participation in the 4-H beef project. Low, positive relationships were noted for all 13 life skills (Table 2). Seven of the 13 life skills yielded (p < .05) significant relationships. These included: "Developing self discipline" = .348, "self motivation" = .300, "develop and maintain records" = .296, "accepting responsibility" = .292, "work in teams" = .283, "ability to relate to others", and "setting goals" = .267. Davis (1971) provided adjectives to describe these magnitudes. Developing self discipline" = .348 and "self motivation" = .300 can be described as moderate, positive relationships, while "develop and maintain records" = .296, "accepting responsibility" = .292, "work in teams" = .283, "ability to relate to others", and "setting goals" = .267 are best described as low, positive relationships. The summed mean values and years of participation in the 4-H beef project were also measured for correlation. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient for this analysis revealed a low, (p < .05) positive relationship of .295.
ConclusionsParents of youth participating in the 4-H beef project did suggest that life skills are being enhanced. They also indicated that there is indeed a low to moderate, positive relationship between years of participation and life skill development. This suggests that the longer children actively engage in the project, the more likely they are developing life skills that will hopefully make them more productive as adults. Extension employees often say that life skills of youth are being developed because these youth actively participate in livestock projects. However, when asked which life skills or how much development of life skills is truly taking place, employees are not adequately equipped with research-based findings that reveal answers to these questions. This study reveals that at least seven of these life skills are being developed. According to parents of these youth, the seven life skills that revealed mean values of greater than 4.0 included:
Today, all of us in Cooperative Extension and the 4-H & Youth Development Program are asked to be accountable for the programs that we do. This includes a measurable impact educational programs have on youth participants. It is important that we answer these questions using reliable and valid data. In order to do this, specific studies on youth programs provide answers to these questions. This study measured the beef project. Additional studies should measure other projects to see what life skills are being developed as a result of active participation in that specific 4-H project. ReferencesBoyd, B. L., Herring, D. R., & Briers, G. E. (1992). Developing life skills in youth. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a4.html Davis, J. A. (1971). Elementary of survey analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction (6th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers USA. Lindner, J. R., Murphy, T. H., & Briers, G. E. (2001). Handling nonresponse in social science research. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(4), 43-53. McCann, J. S., & McCann M. A. (1992). Judging team members reflection on the value of livestock, horse, meats, and wool judging programs. Professional Animal Scientist, 8:3, 7-11. Rusk, C. P., Martin, C. A., Talbert, B. A., & Balshweid, M. A. (2002). Attributes of Indiana's 4- H livestock judging program. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002april/rb5.html Vondy Wacker, D. A., & Boyd, G. W. (1992). Livestock projects for urban youth. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992summer/iw1.html Ward, C. K. (1996). Life skill development related to participation in 4-H animal science projects. Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996april/rb2.html
Family Violence Education in Public Waiting RoomsPatrick Day Molly Latham Geoffrey K. Leigh University of Nevada Cooperative Extension Video instruction is a powerful tool for American learners of all ages. Currently, the average American child or adolescent spends more than 21 hours per week viewing television, not all of which is educational or even positive (American Academy on Pediatrics, 1999). Adults in households with televisions also are affected by the onslaught of video information, resulting in a culture dominated by television and comprised of "visual learners" (Strommen, 1998). While much of the material offered on television is primarily for entertainment, The Effective Public Health Practice Project in Canada has found the use of video instruction to be useful in teaching mandatory programs in public health issues. The public's familiarity and comfort level makes video an important tool for health educators because it encourages and emotionally involves an audience, personalizes the issues, overcomes difficulties with literacy, and engages populations which prefer information in a visual format. Cooperative Extension professionals at Utah State have recognized the benefits of video instruction for sensitive social education topics. Recognizing that hectic schedules, family responsibilities, and discomfort with sharing family problems in public or with strangers can get in the way of parents in crisis, community access cable has been used to teach parenting education classes (Dennis, Lee, & Jensen, 1995). Programs such as this rely on advertising to stimulate interest for the program, and then learners choose to watch a particular program in the privacy of their home. In this scenario, exposure to the educational program is dependent upon the potential learner recognizing his or her own need for such information and taking the necessary action to view the program. Exposure to an educational video on a topic relevant to the current environment or situation of the potential learner recognizes and utilizes the learning impact of the "teachable moment." The VOICES/VOCES program from the Center for Disease Control is a video-based HIV/STD prevention program designed to encourage condom use and to improve condom negotiation skills (O'Donnell, San Doval, Duran, & O'Donnell, 1995). Participants viewed the videos while visiting an STD clinic at a time when a person is more motivated to change behavior. After viewing the video, the participants in the survey had increased knowledge, had more realistic assessment of personal risk, and had fewer repeat STD infections. The large population of family violence victims in need of information and education on available legal responses makes this topic ideal for media (video) instruction. The FBI estimates that, annually, a woman is beaten by her intimate partner every 15 seconds, for an estimated total victim population of three to four million women in the United States. In addition, there is a large child abuse problem in this country, with an estimated 963,000 victims of abuse and neglect in 1997, or approximately 109 cases being reported every hour in this country (National Clearinghouse, 2002), adding to the critical need for family violence educational intervention. Video education is just one component of a multimedia approach that could enhance community efforts to address this problem, (Hillis, 1998). Video is the richest form of multimedia to present an entire program or shorter bites of information to raise awareness and refer to additional information. Yet little is known about the effects of such video education methods, especially in a social service setting. The project discussed here explores the feasibility of using television and videotapes to provide education relevant to family violence and violence prevention to waiting room audiences. The study addresses the following questions:
MethodsFour focus groups held at a large social service agency indicated the need for materials related to family violence. The project subjects were clients of this social service agency in Las Vegas, Nevada. There were a total of 27 participants in the four groups, and their demographic composition is reported in Table 1.
This agency agreed to test the use of family violence videos for delivering topical, relevant educational content to waiting room audiences. The clients would view the videos while waiting to be called for appointments with various social service staff. Due to the limitations of available staff, the agency decided to use agency volunteers to inform waiting room audiences of the available videos on family violence intervention and prevention, and to request that adults complete a short survey after watching the videos. The videos selected are from a catalog of professionally produced products designed for the mass market. The production company produces quality products based on current research and practices in social issues. The videos focus on generic issues of family violence and avoid an emphasis on any particular type of client. The research team purchased the videos specifically for this project. The team conducted a preliminary training session with the volunteer coordinators responsible for task assignment of the volunteer work force. This training consisted of previewing the videos to be shown, providing training in the collection of questionnaires, and stressing the importance of confidentiality for study participants. After the training, questionnaire forms were distributed, and the volunteers were trained in their completion and collection. The survey instrument consisted of a one-page survey containing 6 questions (Figure 1). These questions covered possible ways the videos may have been of benefit to the participants; whether they prefer to watch videos, TV, or both in waiting rooms; and whether they might be interested in attending free violence prevention classes in the community if they were offered.
In order to ensure complete anonymity, volunteers were used to conduct the surveys after a video was shown. The participants then placed their completed surveys in one of three collection boxes for pickup by project staff. The three boxes were in different locations to make it convenient for client response and increase client anonymity. The volunteer staff never saw the completed surveys, nor did they ever see which box the participants used because they were placed in areas removed from the waiting area where the volunteers worked. In addition to the confidentiality issue, every effort was made to ensure that the participants did not feel coerced to complete the survey in order to receive services. The survey had a prominent disclaimer that read: "This is strictly a voluntary program. Your participation or nonparticipation in this program will have no effect on the decision by the Social Service Department to grant or to deny you services or assistance." To reinforce this disclaimer, the surveys were collected separate from service interview areas, away from eligibility staff. The project took place more than 18 months. Approximately 500 surveys were given to the agency, and a total of 126 completed surveys were returned. A number of surveys were misplaced or lost at the agency, so it is difficult to determine an accurate response rate. The overall participation rate of 25% was affected by the availability of volunteer staff, with several weeks passing without volunteer availability to show videos or to distribute surveys. Nevertheless, there were enough responses returned to do some analysis of participant responses to the videos and the method in a waiting room setting. While the number of participants was lower than desired, the importance of their response relative to program planning should not be discounted, given the statistical significance of the responses from the survey. ResultsOf the 126 responses to the video survey, all but two provided some readable responses. In these two cases, the people could not hear the video. One of the two participants did not check any boxes, while the other checked the last two boxes anyway. Thus, we had 124 usable responses to the survey (including the one who checked the last two questions). There were between three and 20 missing responses, with only three missing responses for the question about whether they would prefer to watch educational videos or regular television in the waiting room, and there were 20 missing responses on the questions about the video helping them manage their children's anger. All of the statistics were calculated only on the given responses for each question (pair-wise deletion) with no replacement used for missing data. The very strong majority of the respondents found that the videos provided value in the following ways (Table 2).
The initial test of significance was a simple t-test of whether the respondents were likely to report that the videos provided useful information to those watching. For the first three questions, there was a significant difference between those who said they found that the videos gave them useful information about issues related to anger and violence, managing their children's anger, and looking at new ways to manage own anger (p< .001). In each case, participants who responded to the questions found that the videos provided a significant increase in information regarding family violence. People also found the videos to be an additional benefit offered by social services for those in the waiting room (p< .001). People seemed to like the videos and took advantage of them while waiting for services at the agency. In addition, respondents were more likely to report being interested in a prevention class if one were offered. In order to determine if the differences were due to watching preferences, a basic chi-square test was conducted using the three categories of watching preference with two categories of gaining benefit, learning ways to manage anger, considering the videos a benefit of service, and a desire to attend a free violence prevention class in the community (Table 3). There was a significant difference between those who preferred watching videos and learning ways to manage their children's behavior (p< .001) and managing their own anger (p< .05). There also was a significant difference (p< .01) between those who were interested in attending a free anger management class, with the vast majority wanting to attend, and those who preferred to watch videos instead of regular television. Those who preferred regular television also were less interested in attending free classes in the community. There was no significant relationship between gaining a better understanding or seeing the videos as an additional service and the viewing preference.
DiscussionWhile those who preferred to watch educational videos in a waiting room seemed to get more ideas for dealing with issues in their lives and preferred to attend additional classes, there was no difference with those who preferred watching television for the general understanding of issues or seeing the videos as an additional benefit of the service. The videos were regarded as a benefit to the vast majority of clients in this service, whether or not they preferred watching such videos. This perceived benefit has important implications relevant to the value of sharing educational information, at least with some clients, such as those who responded to this survey. Such a prevention method seems to have some impact on clients and is seen as desirable from their point of view, with only a small cost to an agency. Further study will be necessary to test the impact of showing films on an on-going basis and with other topics. To evaluate the impacts, an agency simply could provide brief questionnaires for easy responses. This would ensure a constant stream of informational viewing opportunities. The agency staff would show the videos daily at different times with breaks in the content to ensure the "freshness" of information being provided. While the videos were not shown in the privacy of the clients' homes, as with the Dennis et al. (1995) study, the processing of information was private. In this study, people watched and listened to the videos, incorporating information into their lives, without divulging personal information or history. Similar to the study using STD videos (O'Donnell et al., 1995), the individuals in this study reported that the videos provided useful information and gave them ideas of how to change behaviors. While there is no measure as to actual changes in behaviors, it appears that such a method is useful in increasing information as well as increasing possible ways to change behavior in different sensitive topics. One problem with this study was that volunteers were not always available to show the videos. If videos had been shown more consistently, there is greater likelihood that more people would have been reached. The availability of such staff or volunteers would take some commitment on the part of any agency to have such videos shown regularly. If such a small effort were made, it appears that an agency or office could increase the intervention that could take place with their clients. ReferencesDennis, S. A., Lee, T. R., & Jenson, G. O. (1995). Using community access cable in an extension parenting education program. Journal of Extension, [On-line], 35(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995april/a5.html Eiser, R. J., & Eiser, C. (1996). Effectiveness of video for health education: a review. Health Education Authority, London. Hillis, B. J. (1998). Internet multimedia in domestic violence prevention. Court Technology Bulletin, [On-line] 10(3). Available at: http://www.ncsc.dni.us/ncsc/bulletin/V10n03.htm National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect (2002). Data from child maltreatment: Reports from the states to the national child abuse and neglect data system (MCANDS) and the national incidence study (NIS). Available at: http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/news/stats/caperps.htm O'Donnell, L. N., San Doval, A., Duran, R., & O'Donnell, C. (1995). Video-based sexually transmitted disease patient education: Its impact on condom acquisition. American Journal of Public Health, 85(6). 817-822.
Machinery Cost Estimates for Amish FarmsRandall E. James IntroductionThere are now over 1,400 congregations, or church districts, of old and new order Amish spread across 33 states in the United States. The districts are clustered into more than 250 settlements of various sizes. The total Amish populations exceeds 170,000, and it more than doubles every 20 years. Over 40 new congregations are formed each year (Kraybill & Hofstetler, 2001). Participation and presentations at recent conferences focused on Amish communities demonstrate that Extension workers are routinely asked to assist with Amish agricultural problems. Finding technically accurate, up-to-date information that is relevant to horse powered, Amish farm systems can be extremely challenging. Extension workers have available a great deal of information to assist farmers in decision making on various crop and livestock enterprises. For example, Ohio State University annually produces farm enterprise budgets that list costs and returns for various crops and livestock (Moore et al., 2002). These budgets can be very helpful for modern agriculture; however, they are of marginal use to the Extension worker advising Amish farmers. While portions of the budgets, like seed costs and fertilizer, are similar in Amish and non-Amish farms, other portions are completely different. One of the most difficult numbers to estimate on an Amish farm is machinery costs. The equipment used on Amish farms is largely dictated by the ordnung (spoken rules of the church district) of each church district (Kraybill & Olshan, 1994; Drake & James, 1993). A study conducted in 2002 estimated the major machinery costs on Amish farms in the Geauga Settlement, which is centered in Geauga County, Ohio. The settlement is the fourth largest Amish settlement in the world, with approximately 1,800 families and over 80 church districts (Kraybill & Hofstetler, 2001; Miller, 2001). MethodologyTwo county Extension workers facilitated discussions with three small groups of Amish farmers in the Geauga Amish settlement on machinery costs. Using a set interview guide, each group was asked to discuss and agree upon the average cost, average useful life, salvage value, and annual maintenance cost of 23 common pieces of machinery used on Amish farms. The participants were encouraged to discuss each piece of equipment individually and come to consensus on the various values. A maximum average life of any piece of equipment was set at 30 years, even though it is recognized that some equipment may last longer. Because most of the equipment used on Amish farms is no longer manufactured, the farmers were instructed to establish the values based on a good, serviceable, used piece of equipment that a full time farmer might buy. The harrow, hay wagons, forecart, and hay tedder are typically bought new, so the farmers developed values based on new equipment in these cases. In addition, it was identified that manure spreaders are often purchased new, but a large number of farmers also buy used. Therefore, in the case of manure spreaders, values on both new and used equipment were generated. In the studied Amish settlement, each farm typically owns a complete line of machinery, with the exception of the threshing machine, which is typically owned by a "threshing circle" of 2-6 farms. To derive each farm's machinery costs, it is necessary to divide the threshing machine numbers by the total number of farms in the circle. Each group interview lasted approximately 45 to 60 minutes and was conducted in three different Amish homes. A host Amish farmer invited neighboring farmers to participate in the meetings. At the conclusion of all three meetings, mean values for each item were calculated and are presented in Table 1, in the Results and Discussion section. Total annual cost was established by: (Mean Purchase Price - Mean Salvage Value) / (Mean Useful Life) = Depreciation, At the conclusion of the study, the researchers realized two important pieces of equipment, a pesticide sprayer and a broadcast fertilizer spreader, had been inadvertently omitted. Both of these pieces of equipment are ordinarily purchased new. The researchers visited and interviewed an Amish equipment dealer who supplies these to the community. This equipment dealer was able to provide the necessary information to include these items in Table 1. A mechanical corn picker was not included in Table 1 because dry ear corn destined for the corn crib is picked and husked by hand in the Geauga Amish Settlement. Results and Discussion
Some of the equipment in Table 1 is not common to conventional farms; therefore, additional explanation is needed.
Because draft horses are a major power source on Amish farms, the cost of their ownership and maintenance must also be included in the total machinery and maintenance costs. Discussions with local Amish farmers and horse producers, along with local auction prices, indicate that a serviceable 2-year-old draft horse mare or gelding, broke to harness, costs between $1,000 and $1,200, or a rough average of $1,100. The actual price range is much wider, varying from a few hundred dollars for animals unfit for farm work and often destined for export and human consumption, to many thousands of dollars for animals of show ring quality. Barring an accident or fatal disease, most draft horses should have a working life of approximately 12 years. At the end of the good working years, they are often kept for light work until they die or get sick and have to be killed and buried. Thus, there is no salvage value. Therefore, $1,100 divided by 12 years is $91.67 per year, or about 25 cents a day for horse depreciation. Valuing hay at $90 per ton and oats at $1.50 per bushel, it should cost approximately $675 per year to feed a working draft horse, (Kline, Porr, & Cardina, 2000). This figure includes hay, grain, and minerals. Approximately $25 per year should be added for vaccines and health care. Most working draft horses are not shoed. The small amount of trimming and foot care necessary is typically performed by the farmer at little to no cost. Bedding costs are trivial. Because draft horses sleep standing up in stalls and rarely lay down, bedding is largely unnecessary. The cost of housing and pasture are very difficult to estimate because horses are typically housed in the barn with dairy cattle or other livestock and also graze with the other livestock. Therefore, it is easiest to charge all the pasture and housing costs to the cows or other livestock. This is particularly valid because the horses are primarily there to serve the needs of the cows and other livestock. Therefore, the total annual cost of owning and maintaining a draft horse can be estimated as $92 per year for depreciation and $700 per year for feed and health care, for a total of $792 per year, or $2.20 per day. Because a harness is absolutely necessary to utilize the power of the draft horse, the cost of the harness should be included with the cost of the horse. The total annual cost of single harness is $30, or $0.08 per day. Therefore, the total daily cost of the draft horse, including harness, is approximately $2.28 per day. This number is rounded to $2.30 per day so as not to imply greater accuracy than the calculation methods support. A remaining challenge is to estimate the number of "horse days" allocated to each enterprise in order to calculate an enterprise budget. A "horse day" is simply the amount of time that goes into a project or enterprise. For example, if a farmer plows all day with five horses, that's five horse days, with a value of $11.50. Horse days needed for each farm enterprise can be estimated through discussions with local Amish farmers. Implications for ExtensionInformation from this study will be most helpful for Extension workers preparing farm enterprise budgets and educational presentations for Amish clientele. Individual equipment budgets can be constructed for various crops. For example, an oat crop would need a grain drill, plow, disc, harrow, drag, wagon, threshing machine, hay baler, grain elevator, and tractor. It would not need a rake, hay tedder, sickle bar mower, corn binder, silage chopper, etc. Dividing the necessary complement of equipment for each crop by an average number of acres produced will generate an approximate equipment cost. Table 2 provides an example of annual machinery costs for an oat crop on an Amish farm.
If it was found through discussions with local Amish farmers that, if 5 horse days, at $2.30 per day, are needed to produce small grain, then $12 per acre should be added to the total machinery costs. In this example, $12 for horse time would be added to the $33 machinery cost per acre generated in Table 2 for a total machinery and horse charge of $45. In the case of the Ohio State University Enterprise Budgets, this is $15 per acre less than the non-Amish budget. The Extension worker can then use this number ($45) to replace the machinery charge in existing enterprise budgets and estimate total costs of small grains in horse drawn systems. The new budget would be much more realistic for Amish farmers and would provide a powerful educational tool to the Extension worker. ReferencesDrake, B., & James, R. (1993). Extension in Religious Communities. Journal of Extension [On-line], 31(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993spring/a6.html Extension Education in Amish and other Anabaptist Communities. Conference Proceedings (1998). Shipshewana, Indiana. Kline, R., Porr, S., & Cardina, J. (2000). Horse Nutrition. Bulletin 762. Ohio State University Extension. Kraybill, D., & Olshan, M. (1994). The Amish struggle with modernity. University Press of New England. Kraybill, D., & Hofstetler, N. (2001). Anabaptist world. Herald Press, Scottsdale, Pennsylvania. Miller, A. (2001). Ohio Amish directory, Geauga County and vicinity. Carlisle Printing, Sugarcreek, Ohio. Moore, et al. (2002). Ohio enterprise budgets. Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University Extension. Available at: http://aede.ag.ohio-state.edu/people/moore.301/index.htm Serving Amish and Anabaptist Communities. Conference Proceedings (2001). Walnut Creek, Ohio.
Extension and Research Professionals Join Forces to Address a Critical Nutrition IssueSusan Nitzke Karen Kritsch Barbara Lohse Tanya Horacek Adrienne White Geoffrey Greene Connie Georgiou Nancy Betts Linda Boeckner IntroductionIncorporating theory into practice is strengthened through collaborations between Extension and research personnel (Ukaga et al., 2002; Saunders & Gallagher, 2003). Our research team developed a unique partnership among researchers and practitioners from Cooperative Extension and another institution with outreach functions, jointly referred to as "Extension" in this article. This collaboration not only helps young adults improve their nutritional health but also serves as a model for future research/Extension teams. Project GoalsOur 10-state project was designed to improve fruit and vegetable consumption in economically disadvantaged young adults, using an intervention based on the Transtheoretical Stages of Change model (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). The primary objectives were to:
Collaborative PartnershipResearch and Extension professionals combined their expertise to design, pilot test, and implement recruitment, assessment, and intervention procedures. Unique collaborations were established between land-grant researchers and Extension partners in nine states and between a researcher and a community studies expert from a private 4-year institution in the tenth state to accomplish four major research functions--design educational materials, develop instruments, recruit/retain subjects, and make educational phone calls (Acknowledgment and Table 1). Extension specialists were state Principal Investigators for this project in Kansas, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Non-Extension research faculty served as Principal Investigators in the other seven states. Major research functions were accomplished by professionals not directly employed by Extension in six states and, in all but one state (Wisconsin), graduate students played key roles.
Extension practitioners were involved in all aspects of the research, especially recruitment and data collection. For example, theory-based items for instrument scales were drafted jointly by researchers and Extension partners. Researchers revised and finalized the scales using structural equation modeling (Bentler, 1998) and other statistical results from data that were gathered from the target audience by Extension partners. This team of researchers is part of an 11-state team that studies dietary behavior patterns of young adults (see acknowledgment). Principal Investigators from each state met face-to-face annually and by phone monthly to plan and synchronize activities (Figure 1). Committees of research and Extension partners worked closely to develop tools and protocols for all key functions of the study. The study utilized a randomized treatment-control, pre-post design and targeted hard-to-reach, low-income (< $16,000/year) young adults aged 18 to 24 years. Extension and outreach partners recruited 2042 participants via direct contact and standardized advertisements. Subjects entered the study over a 6-month time period that began in March, 2003. Three rounds of assessment calls (pre-treatment, mid-treatment, and follow-up) were placed from a central location (WI) (Figure 1). Figure 1.
This chart illustrates the timeframe for instrument development, training, data collection, and follow-up. Extension and outreach specialists from all participating states played major roles in activities represented by shaded arrows during the developmental and experimental periods. Subjects were randomized into control or intervention groups in the initial phone assessment, with reassessments at months 4 and 12. Participants received $20 after their first assessment interview and after the final interview. All control subjects received one mailed pamphlet (5-A-Day Publication #GOB101-99). The intervention group received six mailings comprised of a magazine and an individualized, stage-tailored report; four stage-tailored newsletters; and a second report. The reports were computer-generated from one central location (Rhode Island) and included theory-based (Stages of Change) feedback about decisional balance (benefits and barriers of eating fruits and vegetables), self-efficacy, and stage-specific behavior change processes. Subjects also received two educational phone calls conducted by local Extension partners, following specific protocols based on principles of motivational negotiation (Rollnick, Heather, & Bell, 1992). Key Collaborative ActivitiesThe partnering of research faculty and Extension to develop intervention materials and methods resulted in prototypes that were scientifically valid and theoretically sound while conforming to the needs of community-based educators and target audience members. Intervention materials included a series of four newsletters for fruits and four newsletters for vegetables for each of the five Stages of Change and thousands of text files for the computer-generated individualized reports. Partners collaborated in conducting qualitative pre-testing of materials, Cloze readability tests (Doak, Doak, & Root, 1996), and psychometric testing of instrument scales. Individual interviews and focus groups were conducted with 250 young adults, with equal numbers of males and females in each stage of change. Approximately 650 young adults participated in psychometric testing. Educational telephone calls from Extension practitioners or students in each state reinforced the messages in each subject's stage-based report. During these calls, educators answered questions, offered encouragement, facilitated goal-setting, and verified contact information. ConclusionResearch and Extension partners crafted a unique system of interdependent roles to develop and test a theory-based nutrition intervention. The findings will inform future nutrition education for this target population. Joint input of researchers and Extension practitioners was essential in every stage of the project, assuring scientific fidelity while paying critical attention to the needs of educators and subjects in community settings. Administrative support and the willingness of team members to engage in a flexible style of planning and goal-oriented problem solving were key elements for success. This team's collaborative arrangements provide a heterogeneous model for future integrated, multi-state research and Extension efforts. The partnership model can inform activities in many areas of education and research with Extension/outreach components. Acknowledgement This project was conducted with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems (IFAFS 2001-52102-11226) and Agricultural Experiment Stations in AL, IA, KS, ME, MI, NE, OR, RI, and WI. NC219/IFAFS Research Team:
The NC219/IFAFS research team wishes to thank the dozens of students, Extension professionals, and other outreach professionals whose cooperation made this research possible and whose dedication to meeting the nutrition education needs of young adults made this research fulfilling. ReferencesBentler, P.M. (1998) EQS for Windows 5.7b. Information available at: http://www.usc.edu/isd/doc/statistics/help/pcsoftware/eqs.pdf Doak, C. C., Doak, L. G., & Root, J. H. (1996). Teaching patients with low literacy skills. Second ed. J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia. Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1997). The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion, 12,38-48. Rollnick, S., Heather, N., & Bell, A. (1992). Negotiating behavior change in medical settings: The development of brief motivational interviewing. Journal of Mental Health,1,25-37. Saunders, K., & Gallagher, T. (2003). Decision-making styles: An exploration of preferences of on- and off-campus faculty. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003june/a1.shtml Ukaga, O. M., Reichenbach, M. R., Blinn, C. R., Zak, D. M., Hutchison, W. D., & Hegland, N. J. (2002). Building successful campus and field faculty teams. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002april/a3.html U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000) Healthy People 2010. Second ed. Understanding and Improving Health and Objectives for Improving Health. 2nd volume. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/Document/tableofcontents.htm#Volume2
Taking Spanish-Speaking Countries to the County Through School Enrichment ProgramsScott D. Scheer Gwen Wolford Deborah Wilburn Robinson Judy Conrad IntroductionResearch indicates that children who have studied a foreign language perform better on standardized tests and excel in basic skills of English, math, and social studies compared to other children who have not participated in such programs (Armstrong & Rodgers, 1997; Rafferty, 1986). Also, Spanish immersion for elementary-school children has English-language benefits (Cunningham & Graham, 2000). Many youth today do not have an opportunity to explore a foreign language and culture (Spanish) due to a lack of programming or funding. This article shares and explains how a new 4-H school enrichment program is bringing the Spanish culture and language to children in an elementary school. Program DescriptionThe program was designed as a Spanish language and culture experience for grades 1 through 4. A stipended volunteer provided support and implementation of the 4-H curriculum with the regular classroom teacher. The more background the volunteer has in Spanish language and culture, the more successful the program will be. The benefits for incorporating Spanish language and culture activities with 4-H Youth Development were four fold:
The Spanish language and cultural program complements existing 4-H programs for 5 to 8 year-olds, often called "4-H Cloverbuds," "4-H Cloverkids," or "4-H Prep," depending on the state. The program includes an integrated curriculum, classroom activities and lesson plans, audio/visual aids, and a resource list. The curriculum is flexible in utilization, whether in a formal classroom setting; after-school program; home schooling; business and industry where there are immigrant populations; day-care settings; 4-H clubs; and other community youth groups. The objectives of the program were to:
Program OverviewThe 58 activity pieces included in the curriculum are organized to help children progress from exchanging simple greetings to describing themselves and their families. Ideally, the program is designed for an elementary-level foreign language program that meets two - three times per week for about 30 minutes each gathering. Some of the activities focus on specific cultural aspects of Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and Costa Rica. These may be used at appropriate times to coincide with holidays such as Cinco de Mayo or Carnaval. The ultimate goal is to provide children from all areas of the state with a basis for understanding some of the cultures of the Spanish-speaking world and for communicating with people in Spanish-speaking communities. Sample Curriculum ActivityFollowing is an example of one of the 58 curriculum activities. English translation is given in parentheses after Spanish notations. Theme: Greetings, Introductions, and Good-byes. Objectives:
Talking About the Topic:
Begin with This Activity:
Follow with This Activity:
Close with This Activity:
Evaluating Performance:
Program DeliveryThe program has primarily been conducted in a rural Ohio elementary school with kindergarten, first, second, and third grade children. The program was offered to all children and had a total of 118 participants. A stipended volunteer visited each classroom three times a week for 30 minutes. The curriculum was designed to reinforce age-appropriate competencies being taught by regular classroom teachers to prepare students for the Ohio proficiency test. EvaluationsTo determine how the children responded to the program, an age-appropriate survey was conducted. The children were asked to put an "X" on a smiley face (YES), sad face (NO), or neutral face (SO SO) in response to three questions that were read aloud to them and repeated at least twice. Question 1 - Do you like your Spanish class. Question 2 - Is Spanish class fun? Question 3 - Do you want to learn more Spanish? The findings according to the total sample and by grade level are given in Table 1 (evaluation conducted by co-author, Debbie Wilburn Robinson).
The evaluation data revealed that overall the children perceived their experiences to be positive for learning about and experiencing the Spanish language and Spanish-speaking cultures. According to grade level, children in higher grades (2nd and 3rd), for all three questions, responded more positively toward the program as compared to children in K, 1st, or 1st/2nd combined. Implications and ConclusionsThe findings support the implementation of this Spanish language and culture program. It provides Extension systems the opportunity to bring foreign language and culture to youth who would otherwise not have an opportunity for this type of experience. Additional benefits would involve service learning activities in which program participants may sing foreign language songs to elderly residents in nursing homes, collect food for food pantries, and display projects about the Spanish language and culture in their communities and schools. In conclusion, beginning language and culture study in the elementary years capitalizes on children's developmental readiness for language learning and allows for the extended time necessary for developing language proficiency and cultural understanding. Acknowledgements Special thanks are extended to Hilary Raymond and Carmen Chacon as the lead curriculum writers and for grant support of this program through OSU CARES (Community Access to Resources and Educational Services), a jointly funded effort of University Outreach & Engagement and Ohio State University Extension. In addition, support was received from the school parent-teacher organization. ReferencesArmstrong, P., & Rodgers, J. (1997). Basic skills revisited: The effects of foreign language instruction on reading, math, and language arts. Learning Language, 2(3), 20-31. Cunningham, T. H., & Graham, C. R. (2000). Increasing native English vocabulary recognition through Spanish immersion: Cognate transfer from foreign to first language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 37-49. National 5-8 Curriculum Task Force. (1991). K-3 youth in 4- H: Guidelines for programming. Families, 4-H and Nutrition, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture. Rafferty, E. (1986). Second language study and basic skills in Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana Department of Education.
Training Public School Teachers to Teach CHARACTER COUNTS!Joseph L. Donaldson IntroductionCHARACTER COUNTS! (CC!) is a national coalition of non-profit organizations taking action to teach young people especially the "Six Pillars of Character": Trustworthiness, Respect, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring, and Citizenship. Extension 4-H youth development programs have provided instruction and evaluation for a host of community-based CC! projects. A review of the National CC! Web site revealed nine states with Extension 4-H references (CC!, 2003). One community-based project occurred in Giles County, Tennessee, where a coalition formed representing government, public service agencies, education, and churches. The Giles County public school system did not have a character education program, and educational leaders had little or no information regarding implementing such a program. Based on the tenet that effective character education is pervasive in the school and community (CC!, 1998), the local coalition identified teacher training in CC! as a critical need for building stronger character in youth. As a graduate of the Josephson Institute of Ethics Character Development Seminar, the County Extension 4-H Agent designed and delivered a CC! in-service training for public school teachers. This training was one part of a comprehensive character education plan of work that included, among other strategies, a CC! youth public speaking contest, a local day camp, newsletters and club presentations, and volunteer training. Innovative ApproachThe National Staff Development Council (2004) promotes a set of standards for teacher in-service training with the goal that America's state and local school systems would achieve these ideals by 2007. The Extension 4-H Agent used the plethora of CC! materials to design a training consistent with the six National Staff Development Council process standards (2004). These standards were endorsed by the Tennessee State Board of Education (2004), an oversight group appointed by the Governor that set policy for the state's public schools. Training adults to teach youth is not new; however, designing Extension training that satisfied an in-service requirement for public school teachers offered a new Extension opportunity. Of the Extension 4-H references on the National CC! website, this is the first effort toward fulfilling an in-service requirement for public school teachers. In-service training provides a captive audience of educators who daily reach large numbers of children and adults. Purpose and ObjectivesThe purpose of the in-service training was to inform teachers about CC! and provide them with practical ideas for implementing a classroom and school-wide character education program. The program had four specific objectives; to help teachers to:
The instructional strategies supporting each of these objectives are shown in the in-service training schedule (Table 1).
Methods for Local SchedulingThe Giles County Board of Education has a decentralized method of teacher in-service training. Each principal has administrative responsibility for scheduling five in-service training days, on a variety of topics, at the individual school site each year. The length of training (5 days) is a state mandate, but the training topics are not mandated. The county's eight school principals were contacted via personal letter that described the proposed CC! in-service training, and two elementary school principals were also contacted through personal visits by two different coalition members. The two principals receiving personal visits scheduled the CC! in-service training at their schools. Information was not obtained from nonparticipating principals/schools. Methods for Satisfying the National StandardsStandard 1: The Training Is Data-DrivenThe standard states that teacher training should use "disaggregated student data." The aim is for teachers to set priorities and monitor progress toward instructional goals. With no convenient or ethical way to collect and disseminate disaggregated data, the Extension 4-H Agent showed how outcomes were measured in other programs highlighted on the evidence page of the National CC! Web site (CC!, 2003) and outcomes used in a character education study by South Dakota State University (2003). These outcomes were shared to demonstrate how baseline data was collected and used to measure character education outcomes. Standard 2: The Training Is EvaluatedThis standard establishes the need for evaluative information from more than one source that will direct teacher training improvement and also show outcomes from the teacher training. A one-page survey was created based on the training objectives with a close-ended response scale. Additionally, one question asked if the participants planned to use what they learned (yes/no) and to describe "yes" answers. Surveys were distributed, completed, and collected at the end of the training. Of the 80 participants surveyed, 70 completed surveys were returned, for an 87% response rate. The questionnaire used a Likert-type scale with these response categories: 5=helpful, 4=fairly helpful, 3=slightly helpful, 2=no help at all, and 1=not applicable. Eight out of 10 teachers rated the training as "helpful" in assisting them to explain the CC! movement, utilize the Six Pillars of Character, and gain ideas for teaching character. Regarding the participants' knowledge of how CC! makes an impact for youth, more than 90% described the program as "helpful" (Table 2).
The majority of teachers (n=38; 54%) planned to use at least one technique presented in the training. In an open-ended question regarding the specific technique they planned to use, four answers were given: role plays, bulletin boards, lessons from the Exercising Character Activity Guides (Adkins, 1995) and songs to promote good character. Standard 3: The Training Content Is Research-BasedThis standard alludes to the fact that training should assist teachers in making decisions based on an appropriate research-base. The Extension Agent highlighted research findings from the South Dakota State University (2003), which was, at the time, the largest study completed of a character education program. Standards 4 and 5: The Training Is Appropriately Designed to Achieve Its Objectives, and the Training Applies the Body of Knowledge in Human LearningTeacher training must use "learning strategies appropriate to the intended goal" (standard four) and make an application of "knowledge about human learning and change" (standard five). Instruction included mini-lecture, group discussion, buzz groups, and modeling lesson plans such as those found in the Exercising Character Activity Guides by Adkins (1995). In addition to Exercising Character, the trainer introduced and modeled a number of strategies for teaching character, including the use of videos, books, and bulletin boards. During the training, examples were provided of how character education enriches the cognitive (e.g., ethical decision-making) and affective (e.g., empathy) domains. Standard 6: CollaborationThis standard states that in-service training ought to "provide educators with the knowledge and skills to collaborate." The training concluded by providing teachers at least one hour to plan instruction, build lesson plans, construct materials, etc., with their colleagues. ImplicationsBased on the evaluation results and the experiences of the Extension 4-H Agent who served as the trainer, these suggestions are offered for conducting a similar in-service training.
While the real impact of this program will not be seen immediately, effective instruction is one precursor to a social change such as personal character. The position of public school teachers should assist in motivating change among schools, youth and the community at large. The Extension 4-H Youth Development Program does have a role in providing in-service training for professionals. Relationships between Extension 4-H Agents and local school administrators should be strengthened and utilized to achieve Extension's priority program outcomes. Positive teacher reactions, as seen by the high ratings of this training, demonstrate that additional training and follow-up training opportunities should be pursued. Acknowledgment CHARACTER COUNTS!sm is a service mark of the CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, a project of the Josephson Institute of Ethics. ReferencesAdkins, P. (1995). Exercising character activity guides. Los Angeles, CA: Josephson Institute of Ethics. CHARACTER COUNTS! (1998). Character development theories and strategies. Unpublished seminar materials from Character Development Seminars. Los Angeles: Josephson Institute of Ethics. CHARACTER COUNTS! (2002). Good ideas to help young people to develop good character, 1st and 2nd Editions. Los Angeles, CA: Josephson Institute of Ethics. CHARACTER COUNTS! (2003a). What people are doing. Retrieved August 5, 2003 from Josephson Institute of Ethics Character Counts Coalition Web site: http://www.charactercounts.org/album/albumtoc.htm CHARACTER COUNTS! (2003b). Evidence. Retrieved December 18, 2003 from Josephson Institute of Ethics Character Counts Coalition Web site: http://www.charactercounts.org National Staff Development Council (2004). National standards for teacher training. Retrieved March 31, 2004 from NSDC Web site: http://www.nsdc.org South Dakota State University (2003). Evaluation studies. Retrieved December 13, 2003 from the South Dakota State University ΠCooperative Extension 4-H Web site: http://4h.sdstate.edu/character/eval_study.htm Tennessee State Board of Education (2004). Professional development policy. Retrieved March 29, 2004 from the State Board of Education - Approved Board Policies Web site: http://www.state.tn.us/sbe/policies.html
Building Character Through 4-H School PartnershipsSherry Nickles Vicki Reed Rebecca J. Cropper Kathryn J. Cox Ohio State University Extension BackgroundIn today's global society, it is important to help youth develop character. Since 1997, Ohio 4-H has participated as one of 16 partner organizations in the Ohio Partnership for Character Education (OPCE). Approximately $12,000 was provided annually for 5 years through a Department of Education/OPCE grant to develop pilot 4-H character programs in target counties. 4-H professionals in three counties formed partnerships between 4-H and local schools to plan, conduct, and evaluate programs incorporating best practices identified in recent research for successful youth character development and 4-H school programming (DeBord, Martin, & Mallilo, 1996; Diem, 2001; Harms & Fritz, 2001; Locklear & Mustian, 1998; McDaniel, 1998; McNeely & Wells, 1997). This article shares program highlights and recommendations for developing future 4-H school character education partnerships. Wayne County Character EducationEach year, approximately 3,000 1st through 4th graders participate in Character Counts! programs conducted through the Wayne 4-H school partnership. The 4-H agent trains 12 volunteer teachers annually to conduct programs in 18 elementary schools from October through March. Each month, teachers visit classrooms and facilitate experiential learning activities focused on a pillar of character: trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship. A decision-making and recognition program is held for all students in April. Evaluations indicate that 84% of teachers believe the program teaches students concepts of being persons of good character and is of great immediate use. To supplement the school program, the Extension Agent writes monthly character education newspaper columns and records radio programs. A monthly newsletter, Parent's Pillar, is also written and distributed to each student to take home to parents and caregivers. The FCS Agent also offers a program on teaching character at home to school parent organizations. Muskingum County Character EducationUp to 600 youth annually have been involved in character education through Muskingum 4-H. Delivery methods, cooperating organizations, and schools vary, thus adding to overall awareness and success in reaching diverse audiences. The primary focus of the Muskingum 4-H school partnership is building character with elementary youth. The 4-H Agent conducts in-services for teachers and administrators on Character Counts!. To support their work with students, the partnership provided character education materials through the county's 21 elementary school libraries and support for school character assemblies, student incentive programs, and other efforts. In 2000, the program reached youth in eight additional schools in an expanded partnership with Muskingum Children's Services. Intervention specialists incorporated character education programming in individual and group work with at-risk youth and their parents. A further expansion effort with Muskingum Behavioral Health involved middle and high school students in character education programming. Court-referred youth from two school districts were reached through weekend retreats and after school detention. Brown County Character EducationBrown County 4-H school character education programs are conducted in five school systems by three program assistants funded by United Way. OPCE funds supported Character Counts! programming as part of a leadership skills program in which youth develop decision-making skills for being responsible, trusting, fair, caring, trustworthy citizens. Character education is also incorporated into other 4-H school programs such as Kauffman 4-H Mini-Society, where students set up countries and businesses, and elect leaders to run their countries. Students define characteristics of strong leaders and, over the course of the program, demonstrate greater understanding of the importance of good character for effective leadership. Twelve students in one junior high school were also trained in conflict mediation and established a mediation team to help peers deal with conflict. The team addressed character issues and integrated the six pillars into their resolution processes. Recommendations For Developing 4-H School Character Education PartnershipsThe results of these 4-H character education programs support McDaniel (1998) and DeBord, Martin, and Mallilo's (1996) findings that 4-H school partnerships have the potential to significantly affect youth character development. In addition to the recommendation that 4-H school partnerships should be developed elsewhere, lessons learned over the past 5 years provide the basis for four additional recommendations to enhance the potential success of such partnerships:
Acknowledgment CHARACTER COUNTS!sm is a service mark of the CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, a project of the Josephson Institute of Ethics. ReferencesDeBord, K., Martin, M., & Mallilo, T. (1996). Family, school, and community involvement in school-age child care programs: Best practices. Journal of Extension. 34(3). [On-line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996june/a3.html Diem, K. (2001). National 4-H school enrichment survey. Journal of Extension. 39(5). [On- line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001october/rb6.html Harms, K., & Fritz, S. (2001). Internalization of character traits by those who teach Character Counts! Journal of Extension. 39(6) [On-line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/a4.html Locklear, E. L., & Mustian, R. D. (1998). Extension-supported school-age child care programs benefit youth. Journal of Extension. 36(3) [On-line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb4.html McDaniel, A. K. (1998). Character education: Developing effective programs. Journal of Extension. 36(2) [On-Line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/a3.html McNeely, N. N., & Wells, B. J. (1997). School enrichment: What factors attract elementary teachers to 4-H science curriculum? Journal of Extension. 35(6). [On-line]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997december/tt1.html
ParentNet: A Community Response to Parenting EducationCathy Malley ParentNet was created in 1997 to meet a community need in Danbury, Connecticut for parenting education that is ongoing, high quality, affordable, and accessible. Past parenting education efforts had not always been effective or consistently available. Progress towards improved parent-child relationships and reunification was inadequate, especially when parent education was court mandated. BackgroundDanbury' s high school has identified more than 40 languages spoken by its students (Images of America, Danbury Museum and Historical Society 2001). This number reflects the rich diversity of a city that has become home to more than 16,000 immigrants in the past decade. This immigration pattern has created cultural and language barrier challenges for families. Families need support related to parenting while adjusting to a new community and culture. The number of parents seeking parenting education has risen due to increases in the following:
Project DesignA community planning team (ParentNet team), comprised of The Regional Child Advocacy Center, Children First, Head Start, The Community Resource Center of Danbury Public Schools, and Danbury Youth Services , created ParentNet. The goal of ParentNet is to enable parents to use better parenting practices. Participating parents learn new information about parenting and child development, practice new parenting skills, and share strategies with a parent educator and other parents. The ParentNet program was designed as an ongoing 10-week series of 2-hour classes taught by area professionals. Experienced facilitators recommend that for optimal interaction class size be 10-15 parents. ParentNet was promoted through family-service agencies, schools, and media, and by referrals. The curriculum, Parenting People, developed by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System, was selected for use because it is comprehensive, research based, and easy to use. Parenting People has been successfully piloted with parents who are ethnically, educationally, and geographically diverse. It includes information and skill development activities in the following areas: Parenting Styles, Child Development, Communication, and Guidance and Discipline. The curriculum contains forms and instruments helpful in conducting and evaluating workshops. Potential BarriersThe ParentNet team anticipated the following barriers that are common to parenting projects.
The ParentNet team addressed these potential barriers as follows.
Factors Contributing to SuccessThe success of ParentNet can be attributed to the following.
EvaluationA ParentNet evaluation was designed to identify areas needing revision, document the efficacy of the classes, and profile parents. Since 1997, approximately 120 parents have participated in a ParentNet series annually. Typically, about 80% of these parents are Connecticut Department of Children and Family (DCF) referred. According to written evaluations and feedback from agency staff working with these parents:
As part of the evaluation process, ParentNet graduates indicate interest in ongoing parent support groups. Agency staff "volunteer" to facilitate monthly support groups addressing issues that parents identify. ConclusionCooperative Extension educators are in a prime position to provide leadership to community coalitions related to parenting education. In addition to needs assessments and program planning, educators can assist coalitions by providing ongoing training and supportive educational materials. For information about ParentNet or the Parenting People curriculum, contact Cathy Malley at 203-207-3267 or catherine.malley@uconn.edu.
Volunteer Horse Patrol Provides Needed Assistance in Difficult Economic TimesJenifer Nadeau Diane Ciano BackgroundConnecticut Horse Council's Volunteer Horse Patrol (CHC-VHP) is an effective way to improve relations between recreational horseback riders and public land users while aiding an overworked, understaffed Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). No state or federal dollars support this program; funds and services are donated. The CHC-VHP program is modeled after the Maryland Department of Natural Resources State Forest & Park Service Equestrian Program Volunteer Mounted Patrol and the National Park Service VIP (Volunteers in Parks) program. Information and log forms are modeled after the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area Volunteers in Parks program. Other states may benefit from a similar self-supporting program. CHC Trails Committee Chair and State Equine Extension Specialist are the co-supervisors for the program. Four state forests and a state park are patrolled. The duties of CHC-VHP, which officially began on June 1, 2003, are to ride or hike trails of each state forest and report suspicious or unusual situations to appropriate DEP or CHC staff and provide non-confrontational services to the public, including information on rules and regulations. Additionally, they work in conjunction with DEP staff, identifying potential resource management problems such as trail erosion and compaction; coordinate and complete maintenance and repairs to facilities in conjunction with DEP staff; and render first aid and coordinate emergency medical services when necessary. CHC-VHP members also assist with programs and special events. The program is not involved in rule enforcement or policing. ApproachThe CHC Trails' Committee Chair was the main organizing force, with the assistance of the Connecticut equine Extension specialist. The idea for CHC-VHP came from a CHC member who e-mailed the CHC Trails' Committee Chair an article about the Maryland Horse Patrol from the Equestrian Land Conservation Resource newsletter. The chair then contacted the primary author of this article and the volunteer coordinator of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area VIP Program. A suggestion for forming a horse patrol was placed in the CHC newsletter by the chair, and almost 100 people indicated interest. Next, DEP was contacted, gave their approval, and the horse patrol began. Extension's role was to provide information on the patrol to horse enthusiasts throughout the state through promotion at Extension events, assist with horse and rider evaluations, and help develop rules and regulations for patrol members. Program applicants are required to complete an application form, join CHC, study a program booklet, receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and first aid training, attend a policy training session, and undergo a horse and rider evaluation. Horses are not provided; applicants must provide their own horses. Those without horses may participate by assisting with trail maintenance. Applicants are required to be a minimum of 21 years old, patrol at least one area per month, and transport the horse to and from the patrol areas. Volunteers must ride under tack at all times and pass a background investigation, including a criminal history and driving check. Applicants must have a signed, notarized CHC-VHP liability release form. Participants are not allowed to use unnecessary/excessive force, including slapping the horse with the reins, excessive kicking, whipping, etc., to discipline their horses while participating in horse patrol activities. Riders are required to bring a negative Coggins test and a negative Rabies certificate to the evaluation. Proper riding gear and helmets are required. Applicants must test each horse that they plan to ride on patrol. Four evaluators are used for the horse and rider evaluation, usually including a representative of DEP, two members of the CHC who are also volunteer coordinators, and the state equine Extension specialist. The horse and rider evaluation typically consists of nine "obstacles." The horse must stand tied and alone for 30 seconds. A hiker with a dog approaches the horse and rider. A car approaches the horse and rider, and the driver honks the horn. A person using a weed trimmer approaches the horse and rider to simulate the noise of a motorcycle or ATV approach. The rider is ridden near a tent, over a log, and near balloons. The horse also needs to walk over a bridge and be approached by a bicycle and rider from both directions. Guidelines for disqualification are detailed in advance. The rider must be in control of the horse at all times, without requiring severe restraint to proceed. The horse cannot show signs of lameness or illness during the evaluation. After passing the evaluation and completing all necessary forms, the volunteer receives two volunteer identification patches and a first aid kit supplied by CHC-VHP. Volunteers are required to purchase helmet covers and windbreakers specially designed by the patrol and encouraged to wear a consistent "uniform" when patrolling. There is a hierarchical organization to the patrol. Volunteer supervisors serve as the liaison between the CHC-VHP and the DEP general staff, appoint individuals to serve as volunteer coordinators, and work with the volunteer coordinators to manage volunteers in the program. The volunteer supervisors are the Connecticut Horse Council Trails' Committee Chair and the University of Connecticut equine Extension specialist. The volunteer coordinator (at least one per park or trail) acts as the liaison between the volunteer supervisor and the CHC-VHP volunteers. The volunteer coordinator maintains contact with the DEP supervisor for that public park or trail and provides him/her with information from CHC-VHP volunteers. The volunteer coordinator also relays information from the DEP park or trail supervisor to volunteers about what needs to be done in the park, reports any pertinent and timely information to the CHC-VHP supervisor, and sends all patrol logs from CHC-VHP volunteers to the CHC-VHP supervisor. There are currently 10 volunteer coordinators. The coordinator assistant helps the volunteer coordinator with his or her duties. There are currently 4 volunteer coordinator assistants. A flow chart follows (Figure 1). Figure 1.
There are currently 40 volunteers. Generally, a volunteer picks a forest or bridle trail that will be his or her primary patrol area. Most areas that are patrolled are bridle trails varying from wide, old wagon roads to narrow, windy trails. Trails are generally located in forests, away from major roads. Most of the areas patrolled are somewhat rocky and may include creek crossings or steep hills. When on patrol, the volunteer counts the number of horseback riders, hikers, bikers, walkers with dogs, walkers, etc., that he or she sees while patrolling, and offers directions, maps, first aid, or other information (Figure 2). The volunteer should be a positive role model for equestrian use on the trail. Some maintenance activities include trimming tree limbs, moving downed trees, noting flooded areas of trail, and determining if previously closed trails can be reopened.
Strengths and WeaknessesThe strength of the program is the dedication of all participants in the program and the thorough training and evaluation each horse and rider team receives. Because the program operates on volunteer help, if the volunteers are not motivated and do not patrol, nothing will be accomplished. Volunteers and coordinators must also turn in their monthly logs in a timely fashion so that the DEP staff and supervisors can see where more volunteers are needed or where there are problems. Lack of communication between coordinators and DEP staff is also a weakness; when this occurs, necessary tasks fail to be completed. Future Direction of the ProgramThe program continues to grow and expand. More volunteers continue to join. Recently, approval was given by DEP to add two state parks and a forest to the program. A horse and carriage patrol will also be added in two forests. Trails day events and orientation rides have been organized to promote CHC-VHP. Conclusion and ImplicationsThe CHC-VHP program is designed to help alleviate some of the burden from state Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) employees. By working with DEP supervisors, volunteers are able to multiply effectiveness of these employees and reduce costs to taxpayers. Programs like CHC-VHP enable struggling state agencies to continue to provide valuable services to state residents despite difficult economic times. This program helps to protect and preserve the trails of the state. Other states could organize a similar program and operate it through the state horse council or other state horse group, with assistance provided by the Extension horse specialist or other Extension personnel. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the Connecticut Horse Council and the Department of Environmental Protection for their support of the patrol, especially Leslie Lewis of DEP and Chip Beckett of the Connecticut Horse Council. Diane Ciano was the vision behind the patrol, and she put in many long hours to make it the success it is today. Also thanks to Michael Darre for his fine editing skills.
The Executive Institute for Commercial Producers ProgramCole Ehmke Allan Gray Department of Agricultural Economics IntroductionBecause of rapid changes in production technology, farmers have developed strong technology evaluation skills. But today the business environment and business relationships are also changing quickly. Many commercial producers are looking for ways to be highly successful long-term participants in the agriculture of the future. These farm managers must either have or acquire a comprehensive set of finance, marketing, risk management, and strategic skills. Purdue University has developed a program, in collaboration with Farm Credit Services of Mid-America, designed to teach these skills. In 2000, Farm Credit Services of Mid-America approached the Center for Food and Agricultural Business at Purdue University's Department of Agricultural Economics about developing a management development program for its customers. As a result, a team of specialized faculty and staff at Purdue was formed to develop a curriculum to teach commercial farmers to be highly effective general business managers. This article describes the innovative program developed, the Executive Institute for Commercial Producers (EICP). Project ApproachParticipants were drawn from leading farm businesses in the four states that Farm Credit Services of Mid-America serves (Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee). Invitations to participate in the program were extended by Farm Credit Services to successful, growth-oriented farm managers, their business partners, and their spouses. The specific objectives for designing the program were as follows.
Developing a written business plan was the central pillar of the team's curriculum. Asking participants to go through the difficult process of building a written business plan provided both a central focus and an end product. Building a business plan provided a forum for critical thought into how a business selects strategies and allocates resources. Program DeliveryThe EICP was organized in four 2.5 day workshops spread over a 12-month period. The first three sessions were held on the campus of Purdue University, and the final session was held at Farm Credit Services of Mid-America offices in Louisville, Kentucky. This process was conducted three times for three separate groups of farm families. The multiple session format allowed participants an opportunity to apply concepts presented during the workshop to decisions on their respective farms while the program was unfolding. Three key concepts in the pedagogical design of the program were integration, illustration, and application. Of these, integration may be the most important. A primary feature of strategic decisions is that they rarely involve a single area of the farm business; i.e., adding a new enterprise will likely have financial, operational, people, and marketing dimensions. Hence, throughout this program the linkages among strategy, finance, marketing, and people were a point of focus. An integrated case study developed specifically for the program provided an outstanding tool to promote understanding of the integrated nature of these decisions. In addition to the written case, a 45-minute video introduction for the case study was developed, providing participants with an even more realistic learning experience. Illustration of the concepts in action was important to the program's success. Participants were able to learn from guest producers who had put the tools to work in their farm businesses. Likewise, interaction among peers as the program unfolded provided valuable illustrations of important concepts. The case study also illustrated best practice use of the concepts. Finally, application of the concepts to the participants' farm business forced the participants to explore how and where they would use the concept to make a more effective business decision. Application was promoted in a variety of ways including:
The development team has extended the EICP curriculum to the broader Extension community. The EICP teaching materials were converted into a Web-based format for distribution to all Extension educators across the nation. This phase, known as Strategic Business Planning for Commercial Producers, includes extensive writings to explain and apply the concepts to farm businesses, PowerPoint presentations with complete presenter's notes that aid educators in delivery, and hands-on exercises. It is available at <http://www.agecon.purdue.edu/extension/sbpcp/>. ResultsSince the implementation of the project, the team has observed a marked change in how farm managers view the strategic focus of their businesses. As a direct result of this program, several farms have revised and improved their core value creation strategy. For example:
The peer group developed serves as a longer-term resource group feedback on management issues. To continue opportunities for networking in the future, an alumni program has been developed. The EICP class graduates have gathered twice in Louisville to attend sessions taught by the Purdue team and meet graduates of the other classes. These activities had been specifically requested by the classes, and the content has been developed by leaders elected from the classes. Material and methods used in the class have been used in teaching, research, and Extension activities. A variety of resources used in the EICP program have since been used as teaching materials in the undergraduate classroom. For instance, the case study used throughout the program has now been used in two undergraduate classes. Other case studies, exercises, and lectures are finding use in other teaching and Extension programs. New programs based on the EICP model and materials are in development with Farm Credit Service's own employees. The teaching team at Purdue University has discussed further programs with public and private partners.
What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review BoardsDan Weigel Randy Brown Sally Martin University of Nevada Cooperative Extension Have you ever struggled writing a proposal to your university's Institutional Review Board (IRB)? If so, you are not alone. Increasingly, Cooperative Extension professionals are expected to collect, present, or publish data about community needs, programming effectiveness, and applied research projects. Often, Extension professionals are gathering information from or about people, and such research or evaluation projects must be approved by a university's IRB. While some Extension professionals may have considerable experience with IRBs, others may lack understanding or struggle with particular issues that are involved in the IRB process. This article is the first in a four-part series designed to help Extension professionals better understand the purpose and procedures of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). We hope to ease the confusion and frustration that can sometimes accompany the IRB process. What Is an IRB?An IRB is a review committee established to help protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects. The basic purpose of the IRB is to provide oversight to research that involves collecting data and information from or about people. The information might involve input from community members, ranchers and farmers, 4-H'ers, seniors, and so forth. Basically, the IRB is there to help ensure that when university-affiliated personnel work with people and collect information from them, it is conducted in an ethical way. IRBs are federally mandated committees. Federal regulations specify that institutions that engage in research, such as universities, must establish IRBs to oversee research involving human subjects. IRBs are composed of members from various colleges on campus as well as community members whose expertise is valuable in the review process. In some cases, Cooperative Extension personnel serve on the committees. The authors, who are Extension professionals, have a combined 19 years of experience serving on IRBs. How Cooperative Extension and IRBs InteractCooperative Extension is part of a university system and therefore falls under the same research policies and guidelines as other university units. Typically, if an Extension professional intends to publish or present the information gathered in the form of journal articles, trade articles, bulletins, fact sheets, workshops, or presentations, the project should first be approved by the IRB at the professional's institution. Information collected with no intent to publish it and used merely to evaluate the effectiveness of a program is usually not required to be reviewed by an IRB. Benefits of Working with IRBsDespite what can sometime appear as an aggravation, there are advantages to working with IRBs.
What Is Needed to Apply for IRB Approval?Although IRBs develop their own application forms, there are key elements common to all committees. It is important to keep in mind that the primary focus of the IRB review is the protection of human subjects, not the rigor of the research design, per se. Applications should address the following elements.
How Can You Help the Process Go Smoothly?Based on the authors' experiences both serving on IRBs and shepherding proposals through the process, some steps can help the process go more smoothly.
We hope that this article provides some background and explanation about the IRB process. Future articles in this series will address in greater detail: recruiting participants and vulnerable audiences, addressing risks and benefits, and handling informed consent and confidentiality.
Communicating ImpactsKaren L. Zotz
Communicating Impacts Strengthens PartnershipsCommunication is key in any partnership (Covey, 1990). Communication encompasses several directions: nonverbal (smiles, head nodding), verbal (the spoken language), and active listening, the most critical of all forms of communication (Walton, 1989). Peter Senge added dialogue to the communication skill set. He defined dialogue as the capacity of members to suspend assumptions and enter into genuine thinking together (Senge, 1990). Communicating impacts to decision makers is one way we can strengthen partnerships. For many years, county Extension offices and state Extension systems have had to maintain a delicate balance with their partners: campus and college partners, county commissioners and boards, state legislatures, and the Cooperative State Research, Education, Extension Service (CSREES) federal partner. All of these partners and others not identified are valuable assets for the success of the Extension program. The federal, state, and local partnership provides funding and other resources, as do some agency, foundations, and organization partners. The employees and Extension systems benefiting from this funding must communicate effectively when reporting program impacts. Diem (2003) defines impact as making an impression, the positive differences we make in people's lives as a result of our programs. He provides a process for developing and promoting Extension programs that includes reporting the results. Diem recommends basing reporting procedure and content on audience needs. He urges the writer to keep in mind the audience's reading level and actually how much information you think the audience wants to know. The Kellogg Commission's Third Report on engagement authors offered a seven-part test for engagement: (1) Responsiveness; (2) Respect for partners; (3) Academic neutrality; (4) Accessibility; (5) Integration; (6) Coordination; and (7) Resource partnerships (Kellogg Commission, 1999). Number 2, Respect for partners, emphasized that the purpose of engagement is not to provide the university's superior expertise to community but to encourage joint academic-community definition of problems, solutions, and definitions of success/impacts. Reporting Impacts to Local PeopleIn addition to the more common Annual Extension/Experimentation Station Report used by many states to report impact and the one-page impact sheets used by many states, there is another method for communicating impacts to the public: one-page papers called "County Narrative Reports" that are used in reporting local impacts. The purpose of the County Narrative Report is to assist county commissioners in understanding the Extension Service program planning process and showing Extension programs can produce participant behavior change and long-term positive impact. County Narrative Reports commonly include:
County agents have reported that some county commissioners still require a monthly event calendar in addition to the County Narrative Report. Statewide Reporting SystemA second impact reporting method used is the Extension Accountability Reporting System (EARS). This electronic system was developed by the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service to report program successes. EARS provides a format for reporting program successes and impacts similar to the County Narrative Reporting system. The system was implemented as a communication tool. The EARS electronic system requires criteria similar to the criteria for the County Narrative Reports. County agents and Extension specialists access the electronic system through their passwords. Agents and specialists enter demographic information, including key words used to identify the topic in a key word search. The reports focus on quantified outcomes/impacts in terms of knowledge gained, practice changed, attitudes changed, dollars saved, and policy/law changed. Agents and specialists are encouraged to include case studies, stories, and testimonials. Moxley (2000) addresses the importance of story telling as a powerful medium for creating and making meaning of our lives and our work in communities. The EARS report should answer these questions:
The report should answer the "So What?" and "Who Cares?" questions. ChallengesCommunicating with partners is not without its challenges. Often we are our own worst enemies. We can think of lots of other things we want to do instead of reporting our impacts to the public. It does take time away from the pleasure of teaching and connecting with people. However, using these two methods for reporting we have communicated impacts and strengthened our partnership with decision makers. ReferencesBoldt, W. G. (1988). Never miss an opportunity. Journal of Extension [On-line], 26 (3. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1988fall/a2.html Covey, S. R. (1990). Principle-centered leadership. New York: Fireside Books. Diem, K. G. (2003). Program development in a political world--It's all about impact! Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003february/a6.shtml Hogan, M. (1994). Effective public relations in extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994october/a1.html Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Institutions. (1999). Returning to our roots: The engaged institution. Washington, DC: National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges [On-line]. Available at: http://www.nasulgc.org/publications/Kellogg/engage.pdf McDowell, G. R., (2001). Land-grant universities and Extension into the 21st century: Renegotiating or abandoning a social context. Iowa: Iowa State University Press. Moxley, R. S. (2000). Leadership and spirit. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Patterson, K., Grenny, J., McMillan, R., & Switzler, A. (2002). Crucial conversations: Tools for talking when stakes are high. New York: R.R. Donnelly & Sons. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday. Walton, D. W. (1989). Are you communicating? You can't manage without it. New York: R.R. Donnelly & Sons. Warner, P. D. (1993). It's time to tell the extension story. Journal of Extension [On-line], 31(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993fall/tp2.html
4-H Experiential Education--A Model for 4-H Science as InquiryVirginia D. Bourdeau IntroductionScience education can be improved by immersing learners in the process of using scientific knowledge to "do" science at their 4-H club or school outdoor learning center. Informal learning environments are ideal settings for learners to practice skills necessary for scientific inquiry. Traditionally, outdoor education has been equated with experiential education. Experiential learning may be defined as learning based on personal experiences or direct observation. Experience and observation are key to the scientific inquiry process. The National Science Education Standards (Figure 1) employ Science as Inquiry as a skill across all science content areas. Like life skills in traditional 4-H programs, the process of using inquiry supports content learning. In Oregon's School Enrichment Programs the 4-H Science Inquiry in Action Model (Figure 2) depicts the relationship between the 4-H Experiential Learning Model and the steps applied in science inquiry. This model assists volunteers and teachers in moving away from "cookbook experiments" toward learner-centered experiential programs.
Figure 2.
Let the Inquiry Begin!What might a scientific inquiry based program at a pond look like? A class of fifth-grade students is going to visit the pond. The theme for the lesson is, "A pond community is made up of many unique and interesting plants and animals." The leader begins by asking the learners what they know about life in and around ponds. This helps determine the skills and understanding the learners have brought with them. The answers provided by the learners are recorded on the board. The leader can now identify any gaps in the learners' knowledge or misconceptions about pond habitats (Figure 2, box 1). Their responses will help the leader plan how the lesson will unfold. Next, learners are asked what they would like to know about the plants and animals in the pond community. What questions do they have (Figure 2, box 2)? The leader can guide learner thinking by asking questions. Record the learners' questions on the board. The learners are now divided into several small work teams. Each team is asked to work together to choose one question to be investigated at the pond (Figure 2, box 3). The leader takes on the role of facilitator and coach, directing the selection of investigative topics and helping each team to refine its question. The leader helps the teams focus by framing questions using cognitive terminology such as classify, analyze, predict, and create. Through this interactive process, the learners are engaged in planning and directing their own learning experience. Once each team has agreed upon a separate question, the members of the team design a simple investigation to collect the information and data they need to answer their question (Figure 2, box 4). They make a list of the equipment needed to collect the data and design a data sheet to record it. The class is now ready to go out to the pond, taking along the equipment--nets, pans, thermometers, water-quality test kits, binoculars, and field guides--that they will need to complete their proposed investigation (Figure 2, box 5). Will all the questions selected by the teams be answered at the pond on their first trip outside? Probably not. When they return to their classroom learners can use their data to formulate an explanation of their findings. With the assistance of the leader, learners may do library research or design further investigations at the pond to continue the learning. To complete the scientific inquiry process, learners communicate their results through written reports, posters, displays, or presentations (Figure 2, boxes 6-7). ConclusionLearning to lead learner-centered, inquiry-based activities is as challenging for leaders as it is for learners. The first requirement is for leaders is to develop tolerance for a certain level of chaos. Initially, the inquiry model is also a challenge for learners who are more familiar with prescribed science activities that follow "cookbook experiments" to a known outcome. With repeated application of the inquiry model--learning by doing--leaders and learners become familiar with the steps applied in science inquiry. Learners will soon take initiative and become engaged in designing their own learning experiences. Using the 4-H Inquiry in Action model, leaders can make any pre-scripted activity more engaging for youth learners. ReferenceNational Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Best Practices for Environmental Field Days: Structuring Your Event for Fun and LearningRobert B. Blair Nathan Meyer Amy B. Rager Karen Ostlie Kent L. Montgomery Stephan Carlson University of Minnesota Extension Service IntroductionThe Northwest Minnesota Water Festival, International Falls Field Days, Dakota County Outdoor Education Field Day, Fort Ridgely State Park Youth Day--these are all examples of community events that bring together natural resource professionals, volunteers, Extension agents, teachers, and schoolchildren for a day of learning about the environment. Although these events are exciting and memorable for students, the programs may not be productive educational opportunities. These events are often structured by logistics more than educational practice. Five hundred kids are coming for 6 hours, and you have 20 people who can present activities having something to do with water. What do you do? Call it "Water Days," and rotate groups of 25 children every 20 minutes, with the presenters giving the same show 18 times. This is one solution, but perhaps you should structure the day using some basic educational guidelines. Here, we present six "Best Practices" for creating environmental field days that are both exciting and educational. These are based on research in informal education augmented with our own experiences organizing, delivering, and evaluating dozens of these events throughout Minnesota. Best Practice: Structure Your Field Day Around a Single Theme Incorporating Distinct Learning GoalsWe suggest structuring your event around one clear theme--the idea or message you want to communicate to the students attending your field day. Themes answer the "So what?" of the event and are usually phrased as complete sentences. The topic of your Field Day might be "Prairie." The information you want your visitors to learn and retain about prairies is your theme. Examples of potential themes for a prairie-oriented field day might be:
The theme should be shared with all people involved in your event, including presenters, teachers, and students. Presentations should expand on the theme and incorporate no more than five clear, measurable learning goals. Example goals for student learning based on an experience with the theme "Bison, fire, and drought kept our prairies alive" might be:
Confer with teachers to integrate your theme with their lessons and learning objectives. Consider developing pre- and post-event classroom activities so the field day complements their curriculum. Best Practice: Assess Your Audience Before the EventGetting to know the students attending your event is the foundation of effective planning, marketing, and teaching. Regardless of the content of your presentation, learners will come to field days with a variety of personal experiences, learning styles, ethnic and religious backgrounds, and mental and physical abilities through which your information will be processed. To optimize education, all educators should know as much as possible about participating students and apply this information when planning the event. They should also share this knowledge with all presenters and volunteers. Best Practice: Plan Your Setting for Effective EducationThe setting for your event can provide both opportunities and challenges. Your design can influence interactions among participants. Moreover, participants have social and psychological needs that must be met before they can learn effectively. Students will need to adjust to your event site. They will be distracted from learning in a new environment unless they first explore their surroundings. Consequently, plan an activity that introduces the students to the setting, and, most of all, tell them where the bathrooms are and when they will be able to eat lunch! Best Practice: Use Experiential and Inquiry-Based Teaching MethodsIn a field setting, students learn better when they are exposed to experiential education: hands-on, inquiry-based experiences that engage participants; create a fun, hands-on environment; and help them apply new knowledge. Experiential learning takes place when the student is involved in an activity, reflects on it, determines what was useful or important to remember, and uses this information to perform another activity. Best Practice: Develop and Implement Program Evaluation and AssessmentBeyond participant satisfaction, evaluation can be used to measure qualitative or quantitative changes in students' attitudes, knowledge, or behavior after the field day program. Effective evaluation can be implemented using methods including written surveys, observation, interviews, and talking to parents and teachers. Regardless of the metric, evaluation of outcomes is important because it provides information to make your event more educational. Best Practice: Integrate Marketing into Your Planning ProcessAlthough we often view it with disdain, marketing is essential to successful programming. Regardless of the quality of your event, participation will suffer if no one hears about it or feels a need to attend. Marketing processes help you design a program that is attractive to participants and meets their needs. Likewise, a well-planned marketing program can enhance the appeal of your existing programs, increasing the rate of participation and generation of revenue. An astounding amount of time, effort, and money is expended by Extension on environmental field days in Minnesota and the United States. These "Best Practices" can ensure that this collective work creates the best educational experience possible. For more information, contact any of the authors of this article, all of whom are involved in the "Best Practices for Environmental Field Days" program of the University of Minnesota Extension Service.
Using Technology to Provide Financial EducationMark Oleson IntroductionFinancial problems permeate the lives of many of the families that Extension employees work with. The role of a Family Resource Management Extension Specialist is to disseminate financial information to families. Iowa State University Extension, along with the Iowa State University Financial Counseling Clinic, discovered an effective, educational way to utilize technology in accomplishing this mission. Financial Tip of the WeekPerhaps the easiest way to disseminate the greatest amount of information, in the quickest amount of time, reaching the largest audience, is through technology. The Internet, e-mail, and distance education have opened windows of learning opportunities that several years ago seemed unimaginable. The Internet is a tremendous opportunity to offer select information to individuals who can absorb the information in a non-threatening environment at their own pace. One creative example of using technology to spread financial literacy is the weekly financial tips provided by the Iowa State University Financial Counseling Clinic (Clinic). Three years ago, with the permission of the Registrars Office, the Clinic broadcast an e-mail to newly admitted ISU students outlining the specific financial services and resources available at the Clinic. The message also contained instructions for interested students to subscribe to receive weekly financial tips. Over those three years, the list has grown to over 40,000 recipients. The three largest recipient groups are:
E-mail has proven to be a cost-effective way to provide useful financial advice (financial topics such as credit, credit cards, setting goals, managing student loans, beginning investing, etc.), information about financial services (including other campus and community resources), workshops, and other available educational/learning opportunities. This has created many unique opportunities for collaboration and closer working relationships with other campus organizations and Extension educators. Interested individuals can subscribe to the weekly financial tip several ways:
Sampling of Feedback on from Students
Sampling of Feedback from Non-Students
Sampling of Feedback from Extension Educators
ConclusionEducation is the most basic and essential component of the Extension mission. Iowa State University Extension has uncovered one way of using technology to bring financial education to the homes of individuals and families in an easy, economical, non-threatening way. Initial feedback from the program suggests the information is used not only for personal gain, but also by Extension educators in various programs and efforts. ReferencesBlair, A. D. (1997, November/December). A high wire act: Balancing student loan and credit card debt. Credit World, 86(2), 15-17. Manning R. D. (2000). Credit card nation: The consequences of America's addiction to credit. New York: Basic Books. O'Malley, M. (2000). Educating undergraduates on using credit cards. Retrieved from: http://www.nelliemae.com/library/cc_use.html Oleson, M. (2002). Student credit card debt in the 21st century: Options for financial aid administrators. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 31(3), 35-44.
Forest Landowner Workshops--Combining Traditional Forestry Field Days and Short CoursesAndrew J. Londo IntroductionApproximately two thirds (18 million acres) of Mississippi is covered with forest land, with 66% owned by non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowners (Londo, 2000). These individual forest landowners provide a large and diverse audience for Extension Forestry programming (Monaghan, 1997). Direct contact NIPF landowner educational programs in Mississippi have traditionally consisted of landowner short courses and field days (Londo & Monaghan, 2002). Short course evaluations indicated that participants wanted more intensive, hands-on training in specific subject areas in order to learn how to do what they were learning about in the short courses. To meet this demand, forest landowner workshops were created. Forest Landowner Workshop MechanicsThe original intent of county forest landowner workshops was to provide practical, on-the-ground field exercises of forest management activities, allowing landowners to more actively participate in the practice of forestry. Workshops are a combination of the forestry field days and short courses. Workshops are designed to follow up the county forest landowner short courses, extending the learning experience of participants from the classroom to actual field exercises. The first workshop was conducted in 1999. Since then, 81 workshops have been conducted for 1,840 participants statewide. Workshops are held in individual counties in conjunction with each county forestry association (CFA) and Extension office. The first workshop was Are My Pine Trees Ready to Thin? This workshop has been widely conducted across the state and has been adapted to other states in the region as well. Due to its success, additional workshops have been created. These include Best Management Practices (BMPs), Forest Herbicides, Forest Valuation, and Royal Paulownia Plantation Establishment. A Forest Taxation workshop has also been created that has no "field work" component. However it does provide intensive training in specific forest taxation subjects. The first hour of a workshop is typically held indoors and serves as a lecture period. The lecture is usually given by one of the MSU Area Extension Foresters. The Area Extension Foresters are faculty members in the Department of Forestry and are responsible for conducting Extension forestry programs in their area, or district, of the state (Londo & Monaghan, 2002). With the assistance of forestry faculty and professional foresters, participants are divided into groups and dispersed through the forest for measurement collection. Measurements collected typically include: species, diameter at breast height (DBH), total height, merchantable height, height to natural pruning, and number of stems per acre. The field exercise provides an excellent opportunity for participants to learn how to use the assorted forestry tools for collecting these measurements. In many cases, workshops have prompted the CFAs to purchase this equipment for the use of their members. Following the field exercise, the data is summarized with a discussion of the results and management recommendations. For example, the results of the Are My Pine Trees Ready to Thin? workshop describe the number of stems per acre, average total height and average height to natural pruning, diameter, and stand volume. These values lead to the final decision on whether the plantation needs to be thinned or not. These workshops have been very popular, in large part because the landowners are taught how to use the equipment and collect, evaluate, and interpret the data and results for their own land. Conclusions and Future DirectionsForest landowner workshops were created in response to landowner requests for more in-depth training in specific areas. The success of the workshops shows the ability of the forestry Extension program at MSU to respond and adapt to clientele needs for programming. Short courses are still the an important means of providing educational opportunities for Mississippi forest landowners; however, the use of more topic-concentrated landowner workshops is gaining in popularity. Landowner workshops can be easily adapted in other states. The key to the success of workshops is to create universal teaching objectives and handout materials. These materials are then made available to the instructors, regardless of program location. This ensures consistency in teaching, despite variability in location and instructors (Londo & Monaghan, 2002). Workshop subject areas should be based on local needs assessments and planning activities. It is likely that workshops will continue to be an important component of forestry Extension programming activities at Mississippi State University. Workshops will continue to cover current subject areas, as well as new topics when landowners' educational needs change. ReferencesLondo, A. J. (2000). The effects of forest fragmentation on forest management for Mississippi private non-industrial forest landowners. In: Proceedings of the Forest Fragmentation 2000 Conference, pp. 116-124. Sampson Group Inc. Alexandria, Va. Londo, A. J., & Monaghan, T. A. (2002). Forest landowner short courses at Mississippi State University. Journal of Extension, [On-line]. 40(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/rb5.shtml Monaghan, T. A. (1997). The development, implementation, and evaluation of forestry short courses in Mississippi. In: Beck, R. (editor) Approaches to Extension in forestry--Experiences and developments, pp. 387-394. Proceedings of the IUFRO Working Party S6.06-03 Extension Symposium. Friesing, Germany.
Fieldmen's Luncheon Program Benefits Agriculture IndustrySteven E. Salisbury IntroductionCrop consultants, fieldmen, agronomists, and company representatives make up a significant portion of the agriculture industry. This group of agricultural professionals does a great service to the industry by providing producers with expertise and assistance to ensure that the best possible level of production is achieved while maintaining environmental integrity. Continual education and professional development allow these professionals to stay abreast of new knowledge and information, and to broaden their understanding and awareness of sustainable production practices. These individuals need to be aware of what challenges are occurring or are likely to occur in their area. Dissemination of this information allows time for preventative measures, strategic planning, and treatment so that impacts on crop production can be minimized and natural resources can be protected. Agriculture lenders are another important group of professionals in the industry. It is imperative for lenders to understand the challenges that their clients must overcome and how those challenges and decisions influence the farm's finances. Furthermore, greater understanding of necessary and alternative practices to ensure successful production will make them a more valuable asset to the producer at times when financial planning decisions are made that influence the farm's profitability. The Magic Valley Fieldmen's Luncheon program is conducted annually to provide timely education and an information network that benefits the individual and the industry as a whole. The ProgramThe goals of this program are to:
The Magic Valley Fieldmen's Luncheon program is conducted during the growing season from May through August. Luncheons are held every second and fourth Wednesday of the month, and each session begins at 11:30 a.m. with lunch. At noon, University Extension educators and/or specialists, crop consultants, or agency representatives deliver an educational presentation approximately 30-40 minutes in length with questions and discussion following. Presentation topics include crop production, natural resource management, integrated pest management, nutrient management, and other critical issues that affect the sustainability of agriculture in the Magic Valley (Figure 1). Idaho professional pesticide applicator recertification credits and Certified Crop Adviser credits are offered for appropriate topics.
For the remaining 20-30 minutes of each luncheon, the Extension educator facilitates and moderates an organized group discussion on the current status of crops, pests, water supply, and other timely issues. In an effort to increase the attendance, mailings (electronic and postal) are sent to the targeted audience just prior to each luncheon. This mailing provides them with a reminder notice and information about the topic and presenter for the coming luncheon. Public service announcements are also distributed to local news media. Furthermore, a regional agricultural newspaper correspondent is present at each luncheon. This weekly agricultural newspaper prints articles about the topics covered at the luncheons. Program ResultsThe fieldmen's luncheon program was evaluated in 2002 and 2003. A survey was mailed to those who attended the luncheon. The response rates were 67% and 57% in 2002 and 2003, respectively.
These results suggest that the format of the program is conducive to the education of these professionals and that the topics selected are appropriate and timely. Furthermore, their increased understanding and awareness of sustainable agriculture practices will lead to more recommendations of the sort made to Magic Valley producers. These recommendations will benefit producers, their operations, and the natural resources of south central Idaho. The fieldmen's luncheon did foster the utilization of an information network among agriculture professionals, university Extension, and producers.
The luncheon was also rated as being beneficial (4.3; 5 = very beneficial) to Magic Valley agriculture. Participants believed that the program was an excellent source of information and commented that the luncheon "is very beneficial and valuable to ag professionals," and that "the program needs to continue." ConclusionsThe fieldmen's luncheon program in both its format and content is an effective technique in providing education and professional development to agriculture professionals. Additionally, the luncheon effectively utilizes an information network that results in numerous secondary contacts that ultimately include the producers. Overall, the Magic Valley Fieldmen's Luncheon is positively affecting the agriculture industry by delivering education to its fieldmen, crop consultants, agronomists, and agriculture lenders. Providing timely information and professional improvement to agriculture professionals is leading to more effective and efficient production, which in turn will lead to a more prolific and sustainable industry in the Magic Valley.
Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors: Karen L. Hinton (President), Nevada, Western Extension Directors Henry Brooks (President-Elect), Maryland, Member-at-Large Terry Meisenbach (Past-President), Washington, D.C., Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA Gloria Mosby (Secretary), Texas, Agricultural Communicators in Education Jean Justice (Treasurer), Colorado, Member-at-Large Roger G. Adams, Connecticut, North East Directors Cheryl Alberts, Nebraska, North Central Directors Tom Archer, Ohio, Technical Site Representative Jane Wolf Brown, Purdue, Editorial Site Representative Gina E. Eubanks, Louisiana, 1890 Land Grant Institutions Gary Gao, Ohio, National Association of Couty Agricultural Agents J. Benton Glaze, Idaho, JOE Submission Peer Reviewers Deborah J. Maddy, Oregon, Epsilon Sigma Phi April B. Martin, Tennessee, National Extension Association of Family and Consumer Sciences Margaret Miltenberger, West Virginia, National Association of Extension 4-H Agents Charles L. Norman, Tennessee, Southern Directors Keith Smith, Ohio, Extension Committee on Organization and Policy Joan Thomson, Pennsylvania, Member-at-Large Stephen R. Yanni, Michigan, 1994 Tribal Institutions Ex-officio: Laura Hoelscher, Indiana, Editor Robyn Ness, Ohio, Web Developer
Peer Reviewers:
Charles Allen, Pennsylvania State University Copyright © by Extension Journal, Inc. ISSN 1077-5315. Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal. Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities. Inclusion of articles in other publications, electronic sources, or systematic large-scale distribution may be done only with prior electronic or written permission of the Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org. If you have difficulties viewing or printing this page, please contact JOE Technical Support. |
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