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Table of Contents General Information About Rectal Cancer Stages of Rectal Cancer Recurrent Rectal Cancer Treatment Option Overview Treatment Options by Stage
To Learn More About Rectal Cancer Get More Information From NCI Changes to This Summary (12/12/2008) About PDQ
General Information About Rectal Cancer
Key Points for This Section
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Rectal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells
form in the tissues of the rectum.
The rectum is part of
the body’s digestive system. The
digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste
material out of the body. The digestive system is made up of the esophagus, stomach, and the small and large intestines. The first 6 feet of the
large intestine are called the large bowel or colon. The last 6 inches are the rectum and the anal canal. The anal canal ends at the anus (the opening of the large intestine to the
outside of the body). Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090202011629im_/http://www.nci.nih.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. |
See the following PDQ summaries for more information about rectal cancer:
Age and family history can affect the risk of developing rectal
cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. The following are possible risk
factors for rectal cancer:
Possible signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel
habits or blood in the stool.
These and other symptoms may be caused by rectal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems
occur:
- A change in bowel habits.
- Diarrhea.
- Constipation.
- Feeling that the bowel does not
empty completely.
- Stools that are narrower or have a different shape than usual.
- Blood (either bright red or very dark) in the stool.
- General abdominal discomfort (frequent gas pains, bloating, fullness, or cramps).
- Change in appetite.
- Weight loss for no known reason.
- Feeling very tired.
Tests that examine the rectum and colon are used to detect (find) and
diagnose rectal cancer.
Tests used to diagnose rectal cancer include the
following:
- Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
- Digital rectal exam (DRE): An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual. In women, the vagina may also be examined.
- Proctoscopy: An exam of the rectum using a proctoscope, inserted into the rectum. A proctoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
- Colonoscopy: A procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps, abnormal areas, or cancer. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090202011629im_/http://www.nci.nih.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Colonoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the anus and rectum and into the colon to look for abnormal areas. |
- Biopsy: The removal
of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. Tumor tissue that is removed during the biopsy may be checked to see if the patient is likely to have the gene mutation that causes HNPCC. This may help to plan treatment. The following tests may be used:
- Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test: A laboratory test in which cells in a sample of tissue are studied using chemicals to look for certain changes in the structure or function of genes.
- Immunohistochemistry study: A laboratory test in which a substance such as an antibody, dye, or radioisotope is added to a sample of tissue to test for certain antigens. This type of study is used to tell the difference between different types of cancer.
- Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay: A test that measures the level of CEA in the blood. CEA is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells. When found in higher than normal amounts, it can be a sign of rectal cancer or other conditions
Certain factors affect prognosis
(chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
- The stage of the cancer (whether it
affects the inner lining of the rectum only, involves the whole rectum, or has
spread to lymph nodes, nearby organs, or other places in the body).
- Whether the tumor has spread into or through the bowel wall.
- Where the cancer is found in the rectum.
- Whether the bowel is blocked or has a hole in it.
- Whether all of the tumor can be removed by surgery.
- The patient’s general health.
- Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Stages of Rectal Cancer
Key Points for This Section
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After rectal cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done
to find out if cancer cells have spread within the rectum or to other parts of
the body.
The process used to find out whether cancer has spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body
is called staging. The information gathered from the
staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important
to know the stage in
order to plan treatment. The following tests and
procedures may be used in the staging process:
- Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
- CT scan (CAT scan):
A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
- MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
- Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS):
A procedure in which an endoscope or rigid probe is inserted into the body through the rectum. The endoscope or probe has a light and a lens for viewing. A device at the end is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography.
- PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
- Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay: A test that measures the level of CEA in the blood. CEA is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells. When found in higher than normal amounts, it can be a sign of rectal cancer or other conditions.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:
- Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
- Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
- Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.
When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.
The following stages are used for rectal cancer:
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As rectal cancer progresses from Stage 0 to Stage IV, the cancer cells grow through the layers of the rectum wall and spread to lymph nodes and other organs. |
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
In stage 0, abnormal cells are found in the innermost lining of the rectum. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Stage 0 is also called carcinoma in
situ.
Stage I
In stage I, cancer has
formed and spread beyond the innermost lining of the rectum to the second and third layers
and involves the inside wall of the rectum, but it has not spread to the outer
wall of the rectum or outside the rectum. Stage I rectal cancer is sometimes
called Dukes A rectal cancer.
Stage II
In stage II, cancer has spread outside the rectum to nearby tissue, but it has not gone into the lymph nodes (small, bean-shaped
structures found throughout the body that filter substances in a fluid called lymph and help fight infection and disease). Stage II rectal cancer is sometimes called Dukes B rectal
cancer.
Stage III
In stage III, cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes, but it has not spread to other parts of the
body. Stage III rectal cancer is sometimes called Dukes C rectal cancer.
Stage IV
In stage IV, cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or ovaries. Stage IV rectal cancer is sometimes
called Dukes D rectal cancer.
Recurrent Rectal Cancer
Recurrent rectal cancer is cancer that has recurred
(come back) after it has been treated. The cancer may come back in the rectum or in other parts of the
body, such as the colon, pelvis, liver, or lungs. Treatment Option Overview
Key Points for This Section
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There are different types of treatment for patients with rectal
cancer.
Different types of treatment are available for patients with rectal cancer. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some
are being tested in clinical trials.
A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help
improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients
with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the
standard treatment, the new
treatment may become the standard treatment.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Three types of standard treatment are used:
Surgery
Surgery is the most
common treatment for all stages of rectal cancer. The
cancer is removed using one of the following types of surgery:
- Polypectomy: If the cancer is found in a polyp, the polyp is often removed during a colonoscopy.
- Local excision: If the cancer is found on the inside surface of the rectum and has not spread into the wall of the rectum, the cancer and a small amount of surrounding healthy tissue is removed.
- Resection: If
the cancer has spread into the wall of the rectum, the section of the
rectum with cancer and nearby healthy tissue is removed. Sometimes the tissue between the rectum and the abdominal wall is also removed. The lymph nodes near the rectum are removed and checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
- Pelvic exenteration: If the cancer has spread to other organs near the rectum, the lower colon, rectum, and bladder are removed. In women, the cervix, vagina, ovaries, and nearby lymph nodes may be removed. In men, the prostate may be removed. Artificial openings (stoma) are made for urine and stool to flow from the body to a collection bag.
After the cancer is removed, the surgeon will either:
- do an anastomosis (sew the healthy parts of the
rectum together, sew the remaining rectum to the colon, or sew the colon to the anus);
Enlarge | | ![](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090202011629im_/http://www.nci.nih.gov/images/spacer.gif) | Rectal cancer surgery with anastomosis. The rectum and part of the colon are removed, and then the colon and anus are joined. | or
- make a stoma (an opening) from the rectum to the outside of the body for waste to pass through. This procedure is done if the cancer is too close to the anus and is called
a colostomy. A bag is placed around the stoma to collect the waste. Sometimes the colostomy is needed only until the rectum has
healed, and then it can be reversed. If the entire
rectum is removed, however, the colostomy may be permanent.
Radiation therapy or chemotherapy may be given before surgery to shrink the tumor, make it easier to remove the cancer, and lessen problems with bowel control after surgery. Treatment given before surgery is called neoadjuvant therapy. Even if all the cancer that can be seen at the
time of the operation is removed, some patients may be given radiation therapy or chemotherapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after surgery to increase the chances of a cure is called adjuvant
therapy.
Radiation
therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly in the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
Other types of treatment are being tested in clinical
trials.
This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web
site 6.
Monoclonal antibody therapy
Monoclonal antibody therapy is a type of targeted cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory, from a single type of immune system cell. These antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's clinical trials database.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
After treatment for rectal cancer, a blood test to measure amounts of carcinoembryonic antigen (a
substance in the blood that may be increased when cancer is present) may be
done to see if the cancer has come back.
Treatment Options by Stage
A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
Treatment of stage 0 may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage 0 rectal cancer 7. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 8.
Stage I Rectal Cancer
Treatment of stage I rectal
cancer may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage I rectal cancer 9. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 8.
Stage II Rectal Cancer
Treatment of stage II rectal
cancer may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage II rectal cancer 10. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 8.
Stage III Rectal Cancer
Treatment of stage III rectal
cancer may include the following:
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage III rectal cancer 11. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 8.
Stage IV and Recurrent Rectal Cancer
Treatment of stage IV and recurrent rectal cancer may include the following:
Treatment of rectal cancer that has spread to other organs depends on which organ the cancer has spread to.
- Treatment for areas of cancer that have spread to the liver includes the following:
- Treatment for areas of cancer that has spread to the lung or ovaries is surgery.
Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage IV rectal cancer 12 and recurrent rectal cancer 13. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site 8.
To Learn More About Rectal Cancer
For more information from the National Cancer Institute about rectal cancer, see the following:
For general cancer information and other resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:
Get More Information From NCI
Call 1-800-4-CANCER
For more information, U.S. residents may call the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237) Monday through Friday from 9:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Deaf and hard-of-hearing callers with TTY equipment may call 1-800-332-8615. The call is free and a trained Cancer Information Specialist is available to answer your questions.
Chat online
The NCI's LiveHelp® 27 online chat service provides Internet users with the ability to chat online with an Information Specialist. The service is available from 9:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. Eastern time, Monday through Friday. Information Specialists can help Internet users find information on NCI Web sites and answer questions about cancer.
Write to us
For more information from the NCI, please write to this address:
- NCI Public Inquiries Office
- Suite 3036A
- 6116 Executive Boulevard, MSC8322
- Bethesda, MD 20892-8322
Search the NCI Web site
The NCI Web site 28 provides online access to information on cancer, clinical trials, and other Web sites and organizations that offer support and resources for cancer patients and their families. For a quick search, use our “Best Bets” search box in the upper right hand corner of each Web page. The results that are most closely related to your search term will be listed as Best Bets at the top of the list of search results.
There are also many other places to get materials and information about cancer treatment and services. Hospitals in your area may have information about local and regional agencies that have information on finances, getting to and from treatment, receiving care at home, and dealing with problems related to cancer treatment.
Find Publications
The NCI has booklets and other materials for patients, health professionals, and the public. These publications discuss types of cancer, methods of cancer treatment, coping with cancer, and clinical trials. Some publications provide information on tests for cancer, cancer causes and prevention, cancer statistics, and NCI research activities. NCI materials on these and other topics may be ordered online or printed directly from the NCI Publications Locator 29. These materials can also be ordered by telephone from the Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615. Changes to This Summary (12/12/2008)
The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.
Changes were made to this summary to match those made to the health professional version. About PDQ
PDQ is a comprehensive cancer database available on NCI's Web site.
PDQ is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. Most of the information contained in PDQ is available online at NCI's Web site 28. PDQ is provided as a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health, the federal government's focal point for biomedical research.
PDQ contains cancer information summaries.
The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries are available in two versions. The health professional versions provide detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions provide current and accurate cancer information.
The PDQ cancer information summaries are developed by cancer experts and reviewed regularly.
Editorial Boards made up of experts in oncology and related specialties are responsible for writing and maintaining the cancer information summaries. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made as new information becomes available. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") indicates the time of the most recent change.
PDQ also contains information on clinical trials.
A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Listings of clinical trials are included in PDQ and are available online at NCI's Web site 30. Descriptions of the trials are available in health professional and patient versions. Many cancer doctors who take part in clinical trials are also listed in PDQ. For more information, call the Cancer Information Service 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237); TTY at 1-800-332-8615. |
Glossary Terms
abdomen (AB-doh-men)
The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abdominal
Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abnormal
Not normal. An abnormal lesion or growth may be cancerous, premalignant (likely to become cancer), or benign.
adjuvant therapy (A-joo-vant THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment given after the primary treatment to increase the chances of a cure. Adjuvant therapy may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, or biological therapy.
anal (AY-nul)
Having to do with the anus. The anus is the opening of the rectum (last part of the large intestine) to the outside of the body.
anastomosis (an-AS-ta-MO-sis)
A procedure to connect healthy sections of tubular structures in the body after the diseased portion has been surgically removed.
antibody (AN-tee-BAH-dee)
A type of protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) in response to an antigen (foreign substance). Each antibody can bind to only one specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen.
antigen
A substance that causes the immune system to make a specific immune response.
anus (AY-nus)
The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body.
appetite (A-peh-tite)
A desire to satisfy a physical or mental need, such as for food, sex, or adventure.
bevacizumab (beh-vuh-SIH-zoo-mab)
A monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of colorectal cancer that has spread. It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Bevacizumab binds to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and may stop the growth of new blood vessels needed for tumors to grow. It is a type of antiangiogenesis agent. Also called Avastin.
biopsy (BY-op-see)
The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.
bladder (BLA-der)
The organ that stores urine.
bloating (BLOH-ting)
A swelling or feeling of fullness in the abdomen. Bloating is usually the result of gas in the intestines and can be caused by many things, including overeating, lactose intolerance, and constipation. Bloating can also be a side effect of cancer or cancer treatment.
blood
A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.
bone cancer (... KAN-ser)
Primary bone cancer is cancer that forms in cells of the bone. Some types of primary bone cancer are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, and chondrosarcoma. Secondary bone cancer is cancer that spreads to the bone from another part of the body (such as the prostate, breast, or lung).
bowel (BOW-ul)
The long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. The bowel has two parts, the small bowel and the large bowel. Also called intestine.
breast (brest)
Glandular organ located on the chest. The breast is made up of connective tissue, fat, and breast tissue that contains the glands that can make milk. Also called mammary gland.
breast cancer (brest KAN-ser)
Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.
cancer (KAN-ser)
A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
capillary
The smallest type of blood vessel. A capillary connects an arteriole (small artery) to a venule (small vein) to form a network of blood vessels in almost all parts of the body. The wall of a capillary is thin and leaky, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of fluids and gases between tissues and the blood.
carbohydrate
A sugar molecule. Carbohydrates can be small and simple (for example, glucose) or they can be large and complex (for example, polysaccharides such as starch, chitin or cellulose).
carcinoembryonic antigen (KAR-sih-noh-EM-bree-AH-nik AN-tih-jen)
A substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of people who have certain cancers, other diseases, or who smoke. It is used as a tumor marker for colorectal cancer. Also called CEA.
carcinoma in situ (KAR-sih-NOH-muh in SY-too)
A group of abnormal cells that remain in the tissue in which they first formed. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue.
catheter (KA-theh-ter)
A flexible tube used to deliver fluids into or withdraw fluids from the body.
cavity (KA-vih-tee)
A hollow area or hole. It may describe a body cavity (such as the space within the abdomen) or a hole in a tooth caused by decay.
CEA
A substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of people who have certain cancers, other diseases, or who smoke. It is used as a tumor marker for colorectal cancer. Also called carcinoembryonic antigen.
CEA assay
A laboratory test to measure carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of people who have certain cancers. Also called carcinoembryonic antigen assay.
cell (sel)
The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
cervix (SER-viks)
The lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina.
chemotherapy (KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.
chest x-ray
An x-ray of the structures inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of high-energy radiation that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the chest, which can be used to diagnose disease.
clinical trial
A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical study.
colon (KOH-lun)
The longest part of the large intestine, which is a tube-like organ connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other. The colon removes water and some nutrients and electrolytes from partially digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus.
colonoscope (koh-LAH-noh-SKOPE)
A thin, tube-like instrument used to examine the inside of the colon. A colonoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
colonoscopy (KOH-luh-NOS-koh-pee)
Examination of the inside of the colon using a colonoscope, inserted into the rectum. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
colorectal cancer (KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer that develops in the colon (the longest part of the large intestine) and/or the rectum (the last several inches of the large intestine before the anus).
colostomy (koh-LOS-toh-mee)
An opening into the colon from the outside of the body. A colostomy provides a new path for waste material to leave the body after part of the colon has been removed.
constipation (KAHN-stih-PAY-shun)
A condition in which stool becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass, and bowel movements don’t happen very often. Other symptoms may include painful bowel movements, and feeling bloated, uncomfortable, and sluggish.
contrast material
A dye or other substance that helps show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or other imaging tests.
cramp
A sharp pain that occurs when a muscle suddenly contracts (tightens up). Cramps commonly occur in the abdomen and legs.
CT scan
A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography scan, computerized axial tomography scan, and computerized tomography.
cure
To heal or restore health; a treatment to restore health.
diagnosis (DY-ug-NOH-sis)
The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.
diagnostic procedure
A method used to identify a disease.
diarrhea
Frequent and watery bowel movements.
digestive system (dy-JES-tiv SIS-tem)
The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum.
digital rectal examination (DIH-jih-tul REK-tul eg-zam-ih-NAY-shun)
An examination in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for abnormalities. Also called DRE.
disease progression
Cancer that continues to grow or spread.
drug
Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic.
endometrium (en-do-MEE-tree-um)
The layer of tissue that lines the uterus.
endoscope (EN-doh-SKOPE)
A thin, tube-like instrument used to look at tissues inside the body. An endoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
endoscopic ultrasound (en-doh-SKAH-pik...)
A procedure in which an endoscope is inserted into the body. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument that has a light and a lens for viewing. A probe at the end of the endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal organs to make a picture (sonogram). Also called endosonography and EUS.
esophagus (ee-SAH-fuh-gus)
The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.
excision (ek-SIH-zhun)
Removal by surgery.
external radiation therapy (...RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
A type of radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer from outside of the body. Also called external-beam radiation therapy.
familial polyposis (fuh-MIH-lee-ul PAH-lee-POH-sis)
An inherited condition in which numerous polyps (growths that protrude from mucous membranes) form on the inside walls of the colon and rectum. It increases the risk of colorectal cancer. Also called familial adenomatous polyposis and FAP.
fluid
Liquid.
follow-up
Monitoring a person's health over time after treatment. This includes keeping track of the health of people who participate in a clinical study or clinical trial for a period of time, both during the study and after the study ends.
gene
The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.
glucose
A type of sugar; the chief source of energy for living organisms.
hereditary (huh-REH-dih-tayr-ee)
Transmitted from parent to child by information contained in the genes.
hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (huh-REH-dih-TAYR-ee NON-PAH-lee-POH-sis KOH-lun KAN-ser)
An inherited disorder in which affected individuals have a higher-than-normal chance of developing colorectal cancer and certain other types of cancer, often before the age of 50. Also called HNPCC and Lynch syndrome.
immune system (ih-MYOON SIS-tem)
The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.
infection
Invasion and multiplication of germs in the body. Infections can occur in any part of the body and can spread throughout the body. The germs may be bacteria, viruses, yeast, or fungi. They can cause a fever and other problems, depending on where the infection occurs. When the body’s natural defense system is strong, it can often fight the germs and prevent infection. Some cancer treatments can weaken the natural defense system.
infusion (in-FYOO-zhun)
A method of putting fluids, including drugs, into the bloodstream. Also called intravenous infusion.
injection
Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."
internal radiation therapy (in-TER-nul RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
A type of radiation therapy in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation therapy, and radiation brachytherapy.
invasive cancer (in-VAY-siv KAN-ser)
Cancer that has spread beyond the layer of tissue in which it developed and is growing into surrounding, healthy tissues. Also called infiltrating cancer.
laboratory test
A medical procedure that involves testing a sample of blood, urine, or other substance from the body. Tests can help determine a diagnosis, plan treatment, check to see if treatment is working, or monitor the disease over time.
large intestine
The long, tube-like organ that is connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other. The large intestine has four parts: cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Partly digested food moves through the cecum into the colon, where water and some nutrients and electrolytes are removed. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon, is stored in the rectum, and leaves the body through the anal canal and anus.
liver
A large organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile.
local therapy (...THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment that affects cells in the tumor and the area close to it.
lubricant (LOO-brih-kant)
An oily or slippery substance.
lung
One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
lymph (limf)
The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.
lymph node (limf node)
A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.
lymph vessel (limf ...)
A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.
lymphatic system (lim-FA-tik SIS-tem)
The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.
malignant (muh-LIG-nunt)
Cancerous. Malignant tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.
metastasis (meh-TAS-tuh-sis)
The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuh-SEEZ).
mineral (MIH-neh-rul)
In medicine, a mineral is a nutrient that is needed in small amounts to keep the body healthy. Mineral nutrients include the elements calcium, magnesium, and iron.
monoclonal antibody (MAH-noh-KLOH-nul AN-tih-BAH-dee)
A type of protein made in the laboratory that can locate and bind to substances in the body, including tumor cells. There are many kinds of monoclonal antibodies. Each monoclonal antibody is made to find one substance. Monoclonal antibodies are being used to treat some types of cancer and are being studied in the treatment of other types. They can be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive materials directly to a tumor.
MRI
A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
mutation (myoo-TAY-shun)
Any change in the DNA of a cell. Mutations may be caused by mistakes during cell division, or they may be caused by exposure to DNA-damaging agents in the environment. Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect. If they occur in cells that make eggs or sperm, they can be inherited; if mutations occur in other types of cells, they are not inherited. Certain mutations may lead to cancer or other diseases.
National Cancer Institute
The National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. The National Cancer Institute conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the National Cancer Institute Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called NCI.
NCI
NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. It conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called National Cancer Institute.
neoadjuvant therapy (NEE-oh-A-joo-vant THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment given as a first step to shrink a tumor before the main treatment, which is usually surgery, is given. Examples of neoadjuvant therapy include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormone therapy.
nurse
A health professional trained to care for people who are ill or disabled.
nutrient (NOO-tree-ent)
A chemical compound (such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin, or mineral) contained in foods. These compounds are used by the body to function and grow.
organ
A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.
ovary (OH-vuh-ree)
One of a pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus.
palliative therapy (PA-lee-uh-tiv THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment given to relieve the symptoms and reduce the suffering caused by cancer and other life-threatening diseases. Palliative cancer therapies are given together with other cancer treatments, from the time of diagnosis, through treatment, survivorship, recurrent or advanced disease, and at the end of life.
PDQ
PDQ is an online database developed and maintained by the National Cancer Institute. Designed to make the most current, credible, and accurate cancer information available to health professionals and the public, PDQ contains peer-reviewed summaries on cancer treatment, screening, prevention, genetics, complementary and alternative medicine, and supportive care; a registry of cancer clinical trials from around the world; and directories of physicians, professionals who provide genetics services, and organizations that provide cancer care. Most of this information, and more specific information about PDQ, can be found on the NCI's Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq. Also called Physician Data Query.
pelvic exenteration
Surgery to remove the lower colon, rectum, and bladder, and create stomata (openings) through which urine and stool are passed out of the body. In women, the cervix, vagina, ovaries, and nearby lymph nodes are also removed.
pelvis
The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.
PET scan
A procedure in which a small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein, and a scanner is used to make detailed, computerized pictures of areas inside the body where the glucose is used. Because cancer cells often use more glucose than normal cells, the pictures can be used to find cancer cells in the body. Also called positron emission tomography scan.
physical examination
An exam of the body to check for general signs of disease.
polymerase chain reaction (puh-LIM-eh-rayz ...)
A laboratory method used to make many copies of a specific DNA sequence. Also called PCR.
polyp (PAH-lip)
A growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane.
polypectomy (PAH-lee-PEK-toh-mee)
Surgery to remove a polyp.
primary tumor
The original tumor.
proctoscopy (prok-TOS-koh-pee)
Examination of the rectum using a proctoscope, inserted into the rectum. A proctoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
prognosis (prog-NO-sis)
The likely outcome or course of a disease; the chance of recovery or recurrence.
prostate (PROS-tayt)
A gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate surrounds the part of the urethra (the tube that empties the bladder) just below the bladder, and produces a fluid that forms part of the semen.
protein (PRO-teen)
A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.
quality of life
The overall enjoyment of life. Many clinical trials assess the effects of cancer and its treatment on the quality of life. These studies measure aspects of an individual’s sense of well-being and ability to carry out various activities.
radiation (RAY-dee-AY-shun)
Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves. Common sources of radiation include radon gas, cosmic rays from outer space, medical x-rays, and energy given off by a radioisotope (unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down and becomes more stable).
radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uh-pee)
The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and radiotherapy.
radioactive (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv)
Giving off radiation.
radioactive seed (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv...)
A small, radioactive pellet that is placed in or near a tumor. Cancer cells are killed by the energy given off as the radioactive material breaks down and becomes more stable.
radioisotope (RAY-dee-oh-I-suh-tope)
An unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down and becomes more stable. Radioisotopes may occur in nature or be made in a laboratory. In medicine, they are used in imaging tests and in treatment. Also called radionuclide.
rectal (REK-tul)
By or having to do with the rectum. The rectum is the last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.
rectal cancer (REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer that forms in the tissues of the rectum (the last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus).
rectum (REK-tum)
The last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.
recur
To come back or to return.
recurrent cancer (ree-KER-ent KAN-ser)
Cancer that has recurred (come back), usually after a period of time during which the cancer could not be detected. The cancer may come back to the same place as the original (primary) tumor or to another place in the body. Also called recurrence.
regional chemotherapy (REE-juh-nul KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with anticancer drugs directed to a specific area of the body.
resection (ree-SEK-shun)
A procedure that uses surgery to remove tissue or part or all of an organ.
reverse transcription (ree-VERS tran-SKRIP-shun)
In biology, the process in cells by which an enzyme makes a copy of DNA from RNA. The enzyme that makes the DNA copy is called reverse transcriptase and is found in retroviruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Reverse transcription can also be carried out in the laboratory.
risk factor
Something that may increase the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer include age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, certain eating habits, obesity, lack of exercise, exposure to radiation or other cancer-causing agents, and certain genetic changes.
scanner
In medicine, an instrument that takes pictures of the inside of the body.
side effect
A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.
small intestine (... in-TES-tin)
The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine.
sonogram (SON-o-gram)
A computer picture of areas inside the body created by bouncing high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs. Also called ultrasonogram.
spinal column (SPY-nul KAH-lum)
The bones, muscles, tendons, and other tissues that reach from the base of the skull to the tailbone. The spinal column encloses the spinal cord and the fluid surrounding the spinal cord. Also called backbone, spine, and vertebral column.
stage
The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
stage I colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer has spread beyond the innermost lining of the colon and/or rectum to the second and third layers and involves the inside wall of the colon and/or rectum, but it has not spread to the outer wall or outside the colon and/or rectum. Also called Dukes A colorectal cancer.
stage II colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer has spread outside the colon and/or rectum to nearby tissue, but it has not gone into the lymph nodes. Also called Dukes B colorectal cancer.
stage III colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Tumor cells have spread to organs and lymph nodes near the colon/rectum. Also called Dukes C colorectal cancer.
stage IV colorectal cancer (...KOH-loh-REK-tul KAN-ser)
Cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs. Also called Dukes D colorectal cancer.
staging (STAY-jing)
Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan the best treatment.
standard therapy (...THAYR-uh-pee)
In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used. Health care providers are obligated to provide patients with standard therapy. Also called best practice and standard of care.
stent
A device placed in a body structure (such as a blood vessel or the gastrointestinal tract) to keep the structure open.
stoma (STOH-muh)
A surgically created opening from an area inside the body to the outside.
stomach (STUH-muk)
An organ that is part of the digestive system. The stomach helps digest food by mixing it with digestive juices and churning it into a thin liquid.
stool
The material in a bowel movement. Stool is made up of food that was not digested, bacteria, mucus, and cells from the intestines. Also called feces.
surgeon
A doctor who removes or repairs a part of the body by operating on the patient.
surgery (SER-juh-ree)
A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.
symptom
An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
systemic chemotherapy (sis-TEH-mik KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment with anticancer drugs that travel through the blood to cells all over the body.
targeted therapy (... THAYR-uh-pee)
A type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances, such as monoclonal antibodies, to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. Targeted therapy may be less harmful to normal cells than other types of cancer treatments
therapy (THAYR-uh-pee)
Treatment.
tissue (TISH-oo)
A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
toxin (TOK-sin)
A poison produced by certain animals, plants, or bacteria.
tumor (TOO-mer)
An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancerous), or malignant (cancerous). Also called neoplasm.
ultrasound (UL-truh-SOWND)
A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine, forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Also called ultrasonography.
urine (YOOR-in)
Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra.
vagina (vuh-JY-nuh)
The muscular canal extending from the uterus to the exterior of the body. Also called birth canal.
vein (vayn)
A blood vessel that carries blood to the heart from tissues and organs in the body.
vitamin (VY-tuh-min)
A nutrient that the body needs in small amounts to function and stay healthy. Sources of vitamins are plant and animal food products and dietary supplements. Some vitamins are made in the human body from food products. Vitamins are either fat-soluble (can dissolve in fats and oils) or water-soluble (can dissolve in water). Excess fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body’s fatty tissue, but excess water-soluble vitamins are removed in the urine. Examples are vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E.
x-ray
A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses, x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays are used to treat cancer.
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Table of Links
1 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/adult-soft-tissue-sarcoma/Pati ent |
2 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/colorectal/Patient |
3 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/screening/colorectal/Patient |
4 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/genetics/colorectal/HealthProfessional |
5 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/unusual-cancers-childhood/Pati ent |
6 | http://cancer.gov/clinicaltrials |
7 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43235&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
8 | http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials |
9 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43286&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
10 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43352&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
11 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43420&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
12 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43422&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
13 | http://www.cancer.gov/Search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?diagnosis=43429&tt=1&a mp;format=1&cn=1 |
14 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/colon-and-rectal |
15 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/colon-and-rectal |
16 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/UnderstandingCancer/genetesting |
17 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Detection/colorectal-screening |
18 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/overview |
19 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer |
20 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Detection/staging |
21 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/chemotherapy-and-you |
22 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/radiation-therapy-and-you |
23 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/coping |
24 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/support |
25 | http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary |
26 | http://dccps.cancer.gov/ocs/resources.html |
27 | https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/livehelp/welcome.asp |
28 | http://cancer.gov |
29 | https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/ncipubs |
30 | http://cancer.gov/clinical_trials |
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