• Summary of Key Findings
• Background
• Definitions
• About the Survey
• Community Service
• Service-Learning
• Conclusion
• References

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education used the Fast Response Survey System (FRSS) to conduct the "National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey"in spring 1999. This is the first survey to provide reliable national estimates of the percentage of public elementary, middle, and high¹ schools incorporating service-learning into their course curriculum; it also provides the most recent data on school engagement in community service. The survey findings include the following:

• Sixty-four percent of all public schools, including 83 percent of public high schools, had students participating in community service activities recognized by and/or arranged through the school.
• Fifty-seven percent of all public schools organized community service activities for their students.
• Thirty-two percent of all public schools, including nearly half of all high schools, organized service-learning as part of their curriculum.
• Schools with service-learning tended to have gradewide service-learning, service-learning in individual courses that were not part of a broader grade- or schoolwide initiative, or disciplinewide service-learning programs.
• Eighty-three percent of schools with service-learning offered some type of support to teachers interested in integrating service-learning into the curriculum, with most providing support for service-learning training or conferences outside of school.
• Most schools with service-learning cited strengthening relationships among students, the school, and the community as key reasons for practicing service-learning.

Incorporating service-learning into K-12 schools is a growing area of interest to educators. Like community service, service-learning requires students to serve their communities. However, service-learning takes community service one step further by incorporating the service experiences of students directly into their school work. Service-learning has long been viewed as a possible means of improving education, with roots stretching back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, John Dewey, an advocate of service-learning, believed that students would learn more effectively and become better citizens if they engaged in service to the community and had this service incorporated into their academic curriculum (Dewey 1916). Though first suggested over a century ago, the incorporation of service-learning into the curriculum did not begin in earnest until the early 1970s, and it has only been in the last decade that extensive reform efforts have emerged.

Legislative reform over the past 10 years has set in motion a growing national emphasis on increasing students' involvement with their local communities and linking this service to academic study through service-learning. The National and Community Service Act of 1990, through the Serve America program, and the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993, through the Learn and Serve America program, provided support for service-learning activities in elementary and secondary schools (Corporation for National Service 1999). In addition, through programs such as AmeriCorps, the federal government has offered opportunities to high school graduates, college students, and recent college graduates to serve local communities in exchange for stipends and payment of education loans or money toward future postsecondary education. Both Learn and Serve America and AmeriCorps are administered by the Corporation for National Service, a federal organization also created by the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993.

Two previous studies, one looking at high schools in 1984 and the other looking at 6th- through 12th-grade students in 1996, provide tentative evidence that service-learning has become more pervasive since the early 1980s. Based on a study conducted in 1984, researchers reported that 27 percent of all high schools (public and private) in the United States offered some type of community service and 9 percent of all high schools offered service-learning, defined as curriculum-related service programs (Newmann and Rutter 1985). The 1996 National Household Education Survey (NHES), conducted by NCES, found that 49 percent of all students in grades 6-12 participated in community service (Nolin, Chaney, and Chapman 1997). Of the students participating in community service, 56 percent reported that their community service was incorporated into the curriculum in some way.

The definition of service-learning employed for this study differs from definitions of service-learning used on past surveys. This is not unusual, as noted by the University of Colorado, a leader in the collection and promotion of information about service-learning: "Definitions of service-learning vary considerably among those who embrace it" (University of Colorado 1998). Kraft (1996) presents a similar argument in his discussion of the practice of service-learning. He states that some agreement has been achieved on the definition of service-learning in recent years, but that practices do not always match the definition. For these reasons, specific definitions of community service and service-learning were developed in cooperation with the Corporation for National Service for use on the "National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey." The following definitions were provided to respondents to help clarify the definitions of both terms:

Community service. For the purposes of this survey, student community service is defined as community service activities that are non-curriculum-based and are recognized by and/or arranged through the school. The community service:

• May be mandatory or voluntary;
• Generally does not include explicit learning objectives or organized reflection or critical analysis activities; and
• May include activities that take place off of school grounds or may happen primarily within the school.

  Community service activities may be carried out as schoolwide events, separately organized school programs, or projects conducted by school-sponsored clubs (e.g., Girls/Boys Clubs, National Honor Society). Examples of service activities could include cleaning up a local park, visiting the elderly, or collecting and distributing food to those in need.

These definitions appeared on the cover page of the survey and were incorporated into questions that asked if the school had students participating in community service (question 1) and/or had students participating in service-learning (question 6). Some schools may have interpreted the definition of service-learning more loosely than as stated. In addition, some states, school districts, and schools supporting community service and/or service-learning have established definitions different from the ones used for the survey. This may have created confusion for respondents who have become accustomed to labeling the service activities in their school as either community service or service-learning. They may have inadvertently disregarded the definitions established for this survey in favor of the definitions they have been using. In cases where response inconsistencies were noted, follow-up calls were made to the schools to resolve those issues. On the basis of their responses, it was determined that the majority of schools that reported having students participating in some form of service-learning did have students participating in curriculum-related service activities distinct from community service.

After nearly a decade of emphasis on increasing student involvement in service activities, measuring the extent to which service-learning and community service occur in K-12 public schools is an important step in assessing their overall effect. The "National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey" was designed to meet this need for data, focusing particularly on service-learning. This report seeks to answer several important questions:

• What percentage of schools have students participating in community service?
• What percentage of schools organize community service activities for students?
• What percentage of schools have students participating in service-learning?
• In what ways are schools implementing service-learning?
• What types of support are available for teachers interested in integrating service-learning into their course curriculum?
• What are schools' main reasons for encouraging student participation in service-learning?
• What special grants or special funding are available to support service-learning or community service?

Data have been weighted to national estimates of regular public schools. All comparative statements made in this report have been tested for statistical significance through chi-squared tests or t-tests adjusted for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment and are significant at the .05 level or better.

Overall, 64 percent of all public schools in the United States had students participating in community service activities recognized by and/or arranged through the school. A higher percentage of high schools (83 percent) than elementary schools (55 percent) or middle schools (77 percent) had students engaged in community service activities (table 1). Middle schools were also more likely to have students participating in community service activities than were elementary schools. There were also differences in community service participation by school size, with larger schools (i.e., those enrolling 1,000 or more students) more likely to have students participating in community service activities than schools with lower enrollments.

Schools' use of community service also varied by the economic background of students. Using the Title I threshold for schools that qualify as schoolwide Title I programs (U.S. Department of Education 1999), schools where 50 percent or more of the student body were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch were compared to those where fewer students qualified. Schools with less than 50 percent of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch were more likely to have students participating in community service activities than those that had higher percentages of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.

One measure of school commitment to community service activities is whether the school organizes community service activities in which students can participate. Fifty-seven percent of all public schools organized community service activities for their students (table 1). This represented 89 percent of schools whose students were participating in community service activities (not shown in table). Middle schools (71 percent) and high schools (71 percent) were more likely to organize community service activities than were elementary schools (49 percent) (table 1). In addition, schools with less than 50 percent of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch were also more likely to organize community service activities than schools with 50 percent or more of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.

Table 1.-Percent of public schools that have students participating in community service, arrange community service opportunities for students, and have students participating in service-learning, by school characteristics: Academic year 1998-99

Service-learning in K-12 schools combines elements of community service with classroom instruction. The service performed by students must be organized in relation to the curriculum, have clearly stated learning objectives, meet real community needs, and include participant reflection or critical analysis of the service activities. The percentage of public schools nationwide with service-learning was 32 percent (table 1), which means that about half as many schools had service-learning as had community service. By instructional level, 25 percent of elementary schools, 38 percent of middle schools, and 46 percent of all high schools had students participating in service-learning.

There were also differences in the percentage of schools with service-learning based on the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. Schools with less than 50 percent of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch were more likely to have service-learning than were schools with 50 percent or more of their students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.

Schools can implement service-learning programs in a number of different ways. They range from schoolwide service-learning, which involves every student in the school, to gradewide service-learning, which involves all students in one or more grades, to service-learning as part of an individual course. Of schools with service-learning, 79 percent reported implementing service-learning in two or more ways (not shown in table). Irrespective of how service-learning is implemented, a program may be mandatory and/or voluntary in the same school. For example, a school might require that all 10th-graders participate in service-learning, while allowing students in other grades the option of participating.

Overall, 70 percent of schools with service-learning had students participating in gradewide service-learning, where all students in one or more grades participated in a service project or program through academic coursework (table 2). Sixty-two percent of schools reported that service-learning was offered in individual academic classes that were not part of a broader grade- or schoolwide initiative. Disciplinewide service-learning, that is, service-learning integrated into an entire subject area through academic coursework, was utilized in 53 percent of schools. One-third of the schools with service-learning reported having schoolwide service-learning during the 1998-99 academic year.

Examining the data by instructional level reveals significant differences in the ways elementary schools and middle/high schools implemented service-learning. Elementary schools were more likely to have gradewide or disciplinewide service-learning than were middle/high schools. At the same time, middle/high schools were more likely than elementary schools to have service-learning in individual academic classes that were not part of a broader grade- or schoolwide initiative or in separate electives or advisory periods.

The ways schools implemented service-learning varied, to some extent, by whether the service-learning was voluntary or mandatory. In general, schools were more likely to make service-learning a voluntary choice for students than to mandate it (figure 1). When looking at mandatory participation and voluntary participation practices by ininstructional level, middle/high schools were more likely to make participation in service-learning voluntary. However, any difference that might exist at the elementary school level between mandatory and voluntary participation was not statistically significant.

Table 2.-Of public schools with service-learning, percent implementing service-learning in various ways, by instructional level: Academic year 1998-99

Figure 1.-Percent of public schools with service-learning, by instructional level and mandatory or voluntary student participation: Academic year 1998-99

Interest in involving students in service-learning has been accompanied by support being provided to teachers interested in integrating service-learning into their course curriculum. Nationwide, 83 percent of public schools with service-learning offered some type of support to teachers interested in integrating service-learning into the curriculum (table 3). The most common types of support provided to teachers included support for attending service-learning training or conferences outside of the school (66 percent), financial support for costs associated with service-learning projects or programs (58 percent), and minigrants for service-learning programs or curriculum development (45 percent). However, smaller percentages of schools provided staff support in the form of part-time service-learning coordinators (18 percent) or full-time service-learning coordinators (3 percent).

Table 3.-Percent of public schools with service-learning that provide support to teachers interested in integrating service-learning into their course curriculum, by type of support provided: Academic year 1998-99

Public schools with service-learning were asked to select their three most important reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning from a list of ten potential reasons. These reasons ranged from increasing student knowledge and understanding of the community to improving student participation in school. The most frequently cited reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning focused on the relationships among students, the school, and the community. For example, 53 percent of schools said that they encouraged student involvement in service-learning to help students become more active members of the community (figure 2). The other most frequently cited reasons were increasing student knowledge and understanding of the community (51 percent), meeting real community needs and/or fostering relationships between the school and surrounding community (48 percent), and encouraging student altruism or caring for others (46 percent).

While involvement with the community is a key component of service-learning, it is only a part of the service-learning experience. The other side of service-learning emphasizes the connection between service and academics (figure 2). About one-fifth (19 percent) of schools with service-learning said that one of their top three reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning was to teach critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In addition, 12 percent of schools with service-learning said that improving student achievement in core academic courses was one of their most important reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning.

Figure 2.-Of public schools with service-learning, percent indicating that various reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning were among the most important: Academic year 1998-99

NOTE: Data presented in this figure are based upon the number of schools having service-learning. 32 percent of public schools. Percentages of schools citing reasons for encouraging student involvement in service-learning do not sum to 100 percent because schools selected their three most important reasons.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Fast Response Survey System (FRSS), "National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey," FRSS 71, 1999.

All public schools were asked whether they received any special grants or other special funding to support community service and/or service-learning. Four-fifths of all schools (84 percent) that reported they had some level of service-learning and/or community service also reported they did not receive outside financial help to fund the program(s). Of the 16 percent of schools that did report receiving special funding, 43 percent reported receiving support from corporations or businesses, and 37 percent reported receiving support from foundation grants (figure 3). Ten percent of schools receiving special support indicated that they received support through the Learn and Serve America program, a federal program designed to provide grants to schools interested in integrating service-learning into their curriculum.

Figure 3.—Of public schools receiving any special grants or other special funding to support service-learning and/or community service activities, percent receiving various sources of funding: Academic year 1998-99

The findings from the "National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey" indicate that community service and service-learning are rooted in the U.S. public elementary and secondary education system. The data suggest that there has been an increase in the percentage of public schools involving their students in community service activities, and much of this service is being integrated into the curriculum. For example, in 1984, 27 percent of all high schools were reported to have community service and 9 percent were reported to have service-learning (Newmann and Rutter 1985). During the 1998-99 academic year, these percentages were 83 percent and 46 percent, respectively (table 1). At the same time, the majority of schools with service-learning provided some support to teachers interested in integrating service-learning into their curriculum. Among schools with service-learning, the most frequently cited reasons for involving students in service-learning revolved around strengthening relationships among students, the school, and the community.

While this report uses some of the data from the FRSS study on school-level service-learning to provide much-needed basic information about the state of service-learning in our public schools, more analyses can and should come out of these data. For instance, while it is clear that many schools support service-learning to some degree, it is not clear how deep such support is. Detailed items from the study about the level of support for teacher service-learning training could help answer this question. Another issue that could be explored using these data deals with the subject areas in which service-learning is integrated. A third question that could be addressed is to what extent and in what capacity students are involved in selecting the service activities they will perform. Of course, this study cannot answer every important question about schools' and students' experiences with service-learning, suggesting the need for further studies. For example, it would be interesting to learn if schools that have initiated service-learning activities build on their early experiences by institutionalizing service-learning over time. Such a question and others examining changes in schools' use of service-learning, student participation, support for teachers, and funding require research allowing analysis of changes across time.

Corporation for National Service. (1999). Research: History of National Service. Available: www.nationalservice.org/research/history.html

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York: Macmillan.

Kraft, R.J. (1996). Service Learning: An Introduction to Its Theory, Practice, and Effects. Education and Urban Society, 28(2): 131-159.

Newmann, F.M., and Rutter, R.A. (1985). A Profile of High School Community Service Programs. Educational Leadership, December/January: 65-71.

Nolin, M.J., Chaney, B., and Chapman, C. (1997). Student Participation in Community Service Activity (NCES 97-331). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

University of Colorado. (1998). What Is Service-Learning? Available: csf.colorado.edu/sl/what-is-sl.html

U.S. Department of Education. (1999). Schoolwide Programs. Available: www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA/Title_I/swpguide.html