Mitigation Assessment Team ReportHurricane Katrina in the Gulf Coast
Building Performance Observations, Recommendations, and Technical Guidance
FEMA 549 / July 2006

Chapter 3. General Overview of Storm-Related Damage

One of the goals of a MAT is to observe buildings that effectively withstood 
design flood and/or wind conditions with little or no damage and document 
successes. 

This chapter presents a general overview of typical types of damage that 
resulted from Hurricane Katrina, as well as the effects caused by flood and wind 
damage. Section 3.1 characterizes flood damages observed by the MAT, with 
additional discussion and examples provided by different types of building 
occupancy (e.g., one- and two-family residential buildings, multi-family 
residential buildings, commercial buildings, critical and essential facilities, 
and historic buildings). Section 3.2 includes a similar treatment and breakdown 
for wind effects. More detailed discussions of the observations are presented in 
Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7.

Katrina’s wind speeds were generally below the design winds in most areas, and 
yet wind damage was still observed. Flood conditions, however, were far in 
excess of design conditions over a large area. Flood damage was so widespread 
that there were relatively few successful (flood-resistant) buildings in the 
coastal SFHAs of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi. The MAT documented the 
successes it observed, but also expanded its scope to document survivors 
(buildings that were damaged, sometimes heavily, but stood out from the 
destruction around them). Many of these survivors provide useful 
information about the benefits of designing and constructing for flood 
conditions in excess of the base flood conditions shown on the FIRMs. The terms 
“successes” and “survivors” will be used throughout this report, and are more 
fully described and compared in Table 3-1. 

[Begin Table]
Table 3-1. Building Classifications Used by the MAT: Successes and Survivors

Building Element Characteristic: Overall
Success: No structural damage, with minimal non-structural damage during design 
event.
Survivor: Building is recognizable - structural system (foundation and frame) 
intact, with no more than minor damage. Damage to envelope and non-structural 
elements may be severe.
 
Building Element Characteristic: Foundation
Success: Building foundation is intact and functional.
Survivor: Foundation may have sustained minor damage; any damage or displacement 
is repairable.
 
Building Element Characteristic: Structural Frame
Success: Structural frame is intact and functional.
Survivor: Frame may have sustained minor damage; any damage or displacement is 
repairable.
 
Building Element Characteristic: Envelope (walls, openings, roof, andlowest 
floor) 
Success: Envelope is structurally sound and capable of minimizing penetration by 
wind, rain, and debris.
Survivor: Envelope may be breached, damaged, or destroyed by flooding or waves 
allowing interior damage by wind, rain, and debris. Interior may have been 
damaged or destroyed by wind, rain, and debris.

Building Element Characteristic: Lowest Floor Elevation
Success: Lowest floor elevation was sufficient to prevent floodwaters from 
entering the elevated building envelope during the design event.
Survivor: Lowest floor elevation may have been insufficient to prevent 
floodwaters from entering the building.

Building Element Characteristic: Utilities
Success: Utility connections (e.g., electricity, water, sewer, natural gas) are 
intact or restored easily.
Survivor: Utility connections (e.g., electricity, water, sewer, natural gas) are 
severed, but restorable.

Building Element Characteristic: Access and Usability
Success: Building is accessible and usable following a design-level event.
Survivor: Restoration of building access and use is possible.

Building Element Characteristic: Below DFE Enclosures
Success: Damage to enclosures below the design flood elevation (DFE) did not 
result in damage to the foundation, the utility connections, or the elevated 
portion of the building.
Survivor: Below-DFE enclosures are destroyed.
[End Table]

3.1 Flood Effects

As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, high storm surge and waves from Hurricane 
Katrina caused severe (often catastrophic) damage to buildings on the Alabama, 
Louisiana, and Mississippi Gulf Coast. Damage in coastal areas primarily 
resulted from wave effects, velocity flooding, floodborne debris impacts, and, 
to a lesser extent, erosion and scour. Further inland, flood damage was 
associated principally with storm surge inundation. 

Storm Surge and Wave Damage

The MAT observed that flood elevations in many areas exceeded the 100-year BFEs 
shown on the FIRMs by as much as 15 feet or more. [footnote 1] The team observed 
that storm surge and wave damage typically associated with V Zones also occurred 
in Coastal A Zones and in areas outside the SFHA (refer to Section 2.1.1 for 
definitions of zones). Pre-FIRM buildings and buildings constructed to comply 
with pre-Katrina flood standards were subjected to unanticipated levels of 
flooding. The resulting destruction of buildings and infrastructure in the 
coastal areas along the Gulf was unprecedented, as was the damage resulting from 
long-duration flooding behind the failed levees in New Orleans and surrounding 
areas. 

Footnote 1. Recognizing the potential impact of increased flood elevations on 
long-term recovery efforts and risk reduction, FEMA issued Flood Recovery Maps 
in 2006 to provide guidance during the rebuilding process. The Flood Recovery 
Maps provide ABFEs that were based on a statistical analysis of the high water 
marks and the wind-water damage boundary surveyed in Katrina’s aftermath, plus 
an additional 25 years of historical flood data not available when the earlier 
FIRMs were published in the 1980s.

Figure 3-1 illustrates the general relationship observed by the MAT between 
flood depth (relative to the lowest floor) and damage resulting from waves and 
storm surge striking typical light frame construction where erosion and scour 
were not sufficient to undermine or destroy the building foundation. Note the 
increase in damage when the wave crest elevation rose above the bottom of the 
lowest horizontal member.

Figure 3-1. Idealized building damage vs. flood depth relative to lowest 
horizontal member

Floodborne Debris
Besides waves and storm surge flooding, floodborne debris was a significant and 
widespread contributor to building damage in coastal Mississippi (and to a 
lesser extent in Alabama and Louisiana). Floodborne debris included small pieces 
of destroyed buildings, intact buildings washed off their foundations, vehicles 
and shipping containers, and casino barges. Although it is difficult to separate 
the specific effects of floodborne debris from those of waves and velocity flow, 
it is likely that the presence of the debris increased flood damage in some 
areas; in other areas, large piles of debris could have sheltered landward 
buildings from damaging waves. Examples of floodborne debris and debris damage 
are shown in Figures 3-2 through 3-4.

Figure 3-2. Displaced casino barge floated inland, struck and came to rest near 
a hotel along U.S. 90 (Biloxi, Mississippi)

Figure3-3. A major element of debris in this debris field was shipping 
containers from the port (arrows indicate examples) (Gulfport, Mississippi).

Figure 3-4. Floodborne debris, including shipping containers and sections of 
destroyed buildings (Gulfport, Mississippi)

3.1.1 Flood Effects on One- and Two-Family Residential Buildings
Severe flood damage occurred to one- and two-family residential buildings 
throughout the study area. In areas close to the shoreline, the damage was 
principally a result of waves, velocity flow, and floodborne debris, while in 
areas distant from the shoreline damage was primarily a result of inundation by 
storm surge. Since Katrina’s flood elevations greatly exceeded mapped BFEs, 
flood damage was more extensive and severe than would be expected from a design 
level flood event. Typical flood damages are shown in Figures 3-5 through 3-11.

Figure 3-5. House on verge of collapse due to shallow embedment of timber pile 
foundation (Dauphin Island, Alabama)

Figure 3-6. Elevated house atop masonry pier foundation was lost, probably due 
to waves and storm surge reaching above the top of the foundation (Long Beach, 
Mississippi)

Figure 3-7. Building floated off of foundation (Happy Jack, Louisiana)

Figure 3-8. Wave and surge damage to load-bearing walls atop stem wall 
foundation. The house was located in flood hazard zone C, approximately ¼ mile 
from the shoreline (Pointe Aux Chens area, Jackson County, Mississippi).

Figure3-9. Interior damage and mold from prolonged flooding (New Orleans, 
Louisiana)

Figure 3-10.This new public housing neighborhood (not yet occupied) was flooded 
by storm surge to the first floor ceilings. Houses closest to the bay also 
sustained damage to walls by waves and floodborne debris. The arrows indicate 
the locations of the inset photos (Biloxi, Mississippi).

Figure 3-11. Wave, floodborne debris, and surge damage to some Gulf-front 
neighborhoods was extreme. Arrows indicate locations of buildings in both photos 
(Waveland, Mississippi). SOURCE: UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY [USGS]

In the New Orleans area, severe building damage near levee breaches as well as 
some areas in Plaquemines Parish (with many buildings washed off their 
foundations) resulted from rapidly rising, fast-moving water flowing through 
breaches. Within the levee-protected areas, but away from the breaches, flood 
damage to buildings was typically a result of slowly rising water, which 
inundated houses for long periods (most of these buildings were heavily damaged, 
but remained structurally intact). Refer to Chapter 8 for a more detailed 
discussion of the effects of long-term flooding.

Most one- and two-family residential buildings in the Katrina-affected area were 
built on shallow foundations such as slabs, stem walls, crawlspaces, or piers. 
In some cases, more deeply embedded pile or column foundations were used. 
Masonry pier foundations were the most common foundations in V Zones and in A 
Zones near the shoreline, followed by timber pile foundations. When properly 
designed and constructed, all of these foundations were effective for those 
buildings where waves and surge remained below the floor system and erosion and 
scour did not undermine the foundations. However, in areas where Katrina’s surge 
and waves exceeded the floor elevation, many buildings were destroyed, often 
leaving only foundations behind. In areas subject to erosion and scour, shallow 
foundations usually failed. Detailed discussions about the performance of the 
various foundation types are provided in Chapter 4.

Like site-built homes, manufactured homes sited in Katrina’s path were damaged 
and often destroyed. Damage resulted from the hydrodynamic effects of rapidly 
moving floodwaters (storm surge) and also from submergence (inundation). Many 
manufactured homes floated or washed off of their supports or had supports 
collapse due to velocity flow and scour (see Figure 3-12). 

Figure 3-12. Manufactured home washed off its supports by moving floodwaters 
(Ocean Springs, Mississippi)

3.1.2 Flood Effects on Multi-Family Residential Buildings
Structural damage to multi-family residential buildings varied with the severity 
of flooding and construction type. Multi-family buildings sustained flood damage 
consistent with that observed for one- and two-family buildings, which is 
further discussed in Chapter 4. As observed with multi-family buildings, such as 
apartments, reinforced concrete and steel-framed buildings generally sustained 
less structural damage than light-framed wood or masonry construction, but were 
still subject to wall collapse in instances where wave action was present. 
Examples of multi-family building flood performance are shown in Figures 3-13 
through 3-18.

Figure 3-13. Apartments damaged by storm surge, floating automobiles, and wave 
action (Biloxi, Mississippi)

Figure 3-14. Apartments on slab foundations destroyed by waves, storm surge, and 
wind (Long Beach, Mississippi)

Figure 3-15. Aerial photo of apartment complex shown in Figure 3-14 and the 
surrounding area (Long Beach, Mississippi)

Figure 3-16. Wood-framed and masonry multi-family residential buildings damaged 
by storm surge (limited wave action). The building in foreground sustained 
flooding to a level approximately 30 inches above the elevated floor. The 
building in the background was flooded to the ceiling of the lower floor units 
(Ocean Springs, Mississippi).

Figure 3-17. Wave and surge damage to Gulf-front apartments. Note the poured 
concrete foundation columns and slab performed well, but the waves rose above 
the slab and attacked the wood-framed buildings, destroying the building closest 
to the Gulf, and severely damaging the landward building. The severity of damage 
to the remaining building resulted in demolition (Biloxi, Mississippi). SOURCE: 
USGS

Figure 3-18. Waves and storm surge washed through the lowest floor of this 
condominium building, but the building reportedly sustained no structural damage 
(Gulfport, Mississippi).

3.1.3 Flood Effects on Commercial Buildings
Damage to commercial buildings, like other building types, varied with location 
and flood conditions. Low-rise buildings close to the Gulf, including strip 
malls, individual food service/retail, and larger retail stores, were often 
destroyed or severely damaged by storm surge, waves, and floating debris. 
Several buildings along the shoreline lost load-bearing walls, leaving no 
evidence of the building other than the floor slab. Larger steel-framed 
commercial buildings performed better, as the structural frame and roof remained 
intact, but curtain walls and contents were destroyed. Flood impacts on high-
rise buildings were less extreme, with most damage impacting parking decks 
located on the lower floors. 

Figures 3-19 through 3-21 illustrate typical flood damage to commercial 
buildings observed by the MAT.

Figure 3-19. Strip mall with walls destroyed by waves and storm surge (Biloxi, 
Mississippi)

Figure 3-20. Marine Education Center, which lost most of its walls due to wave 
action, storm surge, and floating debris (Biloxi, Mississippi)

Figure 3-21. A reinforced concrete and pre-engineered metal building (PEMB) 
housing a seafood processing building sustained severe damage due to storm 
surge, waves, and floating debris. Nearby marina buildings were also destroyed 
(Lakeshore area, Hancock County, Mississippi). 
SOURCE: NOAA 

3.1.4 Flood Effects on Critical and Essential Facilities
Critical and essential facilities did not perform any better than the commercial 
buildings, despite the importance attached to these facilities. More information 
on damage to these facilities is presented in Chapter 7. Figures 3-22 through 3-
25 illustrate flood damage sustained by these facilities.

Figure 3-22. Newly constructed Gulfport Fire Station #7 destroyed by waves and 
storm surge (Gulfport, Mississippi)

Figure 3-23. Pass Christian Police Department destroyed by storm surge (Pass 
Christian, Mississippi)

Figure 3-24. Storm surge damage to the St. Bernard Parish Coastal Government 
Complex (Delacroix, Louisiana) 

Figure 3-25. Floodwater isolated Charity Hospital and incapacitated its 
emergency generator (New Orleans, Louisiana)

3.1.5 Flood Effects on Historic Buildings

Throughout the impacted area, the MAT reviewed damage to an extensive number of 
historic buildings, which had fared well in past major hurricanes. Damage to 
historic buildings varied based on their elevation, structural system, 
foundation type, and, in some cases, the amount of retrofitting integrated while 
maintaining the facility. Most historic buildings survived inundation by 
floodwaters, but, like other buildings, those that were near the open coast were 
often damaged by waves and floodborne debris. More information on the damages 
and observations to historic buildings is contained in Chapter 6. Figures 3-26 
through 3-28 illustrate flood damage sustained by several historic structures.

Figure 3-26.
a. This house (actually, one of three houses that make up the Milne Boys Home) 
had an interior flood depth of 3 feet. 
b. and c. Water marks on the interior and exterior of the Milne Boys Home 
indicate the levee of flooding that occurred as a result of Hurricane Katrina 
(New Orleans, Louisiana).

Figure 3-27. Before (a.) and after (b.) photos of Beauvoir (Jefferson Davis’ 
home), built in 1848. The building sustained severe surge damage from Hurricane 
Katrina's waves and storm surge (Biloxi, Mississippi).

Figure 3-28. This hotel, built in 1927, suffered wave damage and was struck by a 
casino barge (Biloxi, Mississippi).

3.2 Wind Effects

As documented in Chapter 1, Hurricane Katrina’s flood levels were significantly 
higher than the design level; however, Hurricane Katrina’s wind speeds were 
below current design wind speeds in most areas, but the wind pressures exceeded 
some of the older code-level wind pressures. The MAT did observe damage to 
structural elements but, most noticeably, observed widespread wind damage to 
building envelopes along the entire coasts of Alabama, Louisiana, and 
Mississippi, and extending several miles inland. The MAT also observed numerous 
examples of building damage due to tree-fall and windborne debris (most 
windborne debris damage was a result of aggregate blowing off roofs and blown-
off vinyl siding and asphalt shingles). Many buildings that experienced envelope 
breaches also suffered from internal pressurization, which resulted in 
additional building damage and damage to non-structural elements and contents 
from rainfall penetration. 

Wind Damage

As expected, wind damage generally was greater in areas where wind speeds were 
higher and in areas where the housing inventory included many older homes or 
homes that lacked sufficient quality of construction. High-wind areas like the 
towns of Buras and Boothville in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, and Bay St. 
Louis, Waveland, and Pass Christian, Mississippi, were particularly hard hit. In 
areas like Biloxi and Pascagoula, Mississippi, and Slidell, Louisiana, where 
wind speeds were lower, wind damage was common, but typically not as extensive 
or severe as in areas exposed to higher wind speeds. However, wind damage was 
also common in some areas many miles from areas exposed to the highest winds. 
For example, some homes on Dauphin Island, Alabama, over 100 miles east of the 
storm’s track, were damaged severely by Katrina’s winds.

Windborne Debris

Structural and building envelope failure resulted from windborne debris, which 
included roof aggregate (see Figure 3-29); roofing panels, tiles, shingles, and 
rooftop equipment; vinyl siding; tree limbs; and falling trees. Fallen tree 
damage was widespread and even affected areas where wind speeds were relatively 
low. Buildings surrounded by tall dense forests had reduced wind loads compared 
with buildings that were not protected by trees. However, as wind speed 
increases, trees fall (see Figure 3-30) and/or are stripped of leaves and 
branches, which then reduces some of the protection they may initially provide.

Figure 3-29. Roof aggregate was the primary windborne debris source for the 
window damage (New Orleans, Louisiana).

Figure 3-30. Tree-damaged home (Diamondhead, Mississippi) 

3.2.1 Wind Effects on One- and Two-Family Residential Buildings

Many one- and two-family residential buildings observed by the MAT experienced 
no wind damage, while others sustained varying degrees of non-structural or 
structural damage due to wind. The most common type of wind damage was to the 
building envelope, including loss of asphalt shingles and vinyl siding, soffit 
blow-out, and broken glazing. When loss of glazing or other damage created 
breaches in building envelopes, building interiors were pressurized and the 
damage was greater. When a building lost soffit materials or roof sheathing, the 
loss of the roof or other structural damage typically followed. Usually, 
structural damage typically was limited to loss of a few sheets of roof 
sheathing (see Figure 3-31) but, in some cases, there was extensive loss of 
sheathing (see Figure 3-32), which resulted in loss of trusses or joists. 
Typical examples of wind damage to one- and two-family residential buildings are 
shown in Figures 3-32 through 3-37.

Figure 3-31. Roof sheathing was a source of windborne debris (Waveland, 
Mississippi).

Figure 3-32. Relatively new home damaged from internal pressurization and lack 
of adequate connections (Pass Christian, Mississippi) 

Figure 3-33. Loss of shingles and chimney failure caused by inadequate 
attachment (Slidell, Louisiana)

Figure 3-34. 
Row house with failed gable end wall and roof (gable end wall was being replaced 
when this photo was taken) (Biloxi, Mississippi).

Figure 3-35. House constructed in 2001 on Gulf side of Dauphin Island, Alabama, 
was destroyed by wind (Dauphin Island, Alabama) 

Figure 3-36. Roof sheathing damage to an older home (Gulfport, Mississippi)

Figure 3-37. A home under construction racked severely when exposed to Katrina’s 
winds. Its attached garage also collapsed (Slidell, Louisiana).

While most of the damage to manufactured housing was from flooding, wind damage 
was noted in both older and newer manufactured housing. Wind damage to 
manufactured homes included loss of asphalt shingle roofing, loss of vinyl 
siding, loss of large overhangs, and damage to window and door glazing (see 
Figure 3-38).

Figure 3-38. Manufactured home lost a gable roof over its entrance, asphalt 
shingles, and metal fascia along its eaves (Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana)

3.2.2 Wind Effects on Multi-Family Residential Buildings

As was the case with one- and two-family residential buildings, wind damage to 
multi-family residential buildings varied with wind speed, building shape, 
structural design, and construction quality. Examples of wind damage to multi-
family residential buildings are shown in Figures 3-39 through 3-42, and a more 
detailed discussion of wind damage can be found in Chapters 4 and 5.

Figure 3-39. Apartment complex severely damaged by wind. Although wind speeds 
were less than current code-specified values, widespread and severe damage 
occurred at this development, a result of poor construction quality (Ocean 
Springs, Mississippi).

Figure 3-40. Multi-family, wood-framed residential building damaged by high 
winds (Waveland, Mississippi)

Figure 3-41.Wind damage to wood-framed, multi-family residential building (Long 
Beach, Mississippi)

Figure 3-42. Gable end wall and roof sheathing loss to apartments near the City 
of Toca (St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana)

Damage was greatest when building envelopes were breached at “soft” portions of 
the build­ing exteriors, like soffits and lightly constructed ceilings over 
covered corridors or breezeways, which resulted in pressurization and structural 
failures.

Multi-family residential buildings constructed with reinforced concrete or steel 
frames performed well structurally (see Figure 3-43). Unfortunately, many of 
those buildings had weak envelopes covered with materials like exterior 
insulation finishing systems (EIFS) (see Figure 5-8 for typical EIFS 
assemblies). Although the structural systems performed well, many sustained 
extensive damage due to water entry through failed building envelopes (see 
Figures 3-44 and 3-45).

Figure 3-43. Multi-family residential building constructed with reinforced 
concrete frame showed no visible structural damage (Ocean Springs, Mississippi)

Figure 3-44. Reinforced concrete frame building that performed well 
structurally, but sustained extensive damage due to water intrusion from EIFS 
failure (Biloxi, Mississippi)

Figure 3-45. Damage to EIFS on hotel and casino (Biloxi, Mississippi)

3.2.3 Wind Effects on Commercial Building

Wind damage to commercial buildings’ structural systems depended much more on 
building construction than on building location. Relatively weak (i.e., non-
engineered or not structurally reinforced) commercial buildings were destroyed 
in areas where wind speeds were relatively low, while stronger (i.e., engineered 
or structurally reinforced) buildings experienced little or no structural damage 
in areas exposed to the highest winds.

In general, high- and medium-rise buildings performed much better than low-rise 
structures. MAT team members investigated few buildings over three stories that 
experienced significant structural wind damage, but did observe envelope damage 
(see Figures 3-46 and 3-47). No wind-induced collapses of high- and medium-rise 
buildings were noted, but deck failure was observed on a 400-foot tall building 
(see Figure 3-48). [Footnote 2] In comparison, several one- and two-story 
com­mercial structures sustained severe structural damage due to wind. 

Figure 3-46. Closeup of high-rise building whose structure performed well, but 
experienced widespread damage to its EIFS envelope and some glazing damage 
(Biloxi, Mississippi)

Figure 3-47. Roof aggregate was the primary windborne debris source for the 
glazing damage to the hotel and office building (New Orleans, Louisiana).

Figure 3-48. The deck on this 400-foot tall building was lightweight insulating 
concrete over steel form deck. The form deck was blown from the deck supports 
(New Orleans, Louisiana).

Footnote 2. In discussing wind damage to buildings, it is important to 
differentiate between structural components and envelope components. Many 
commercial buildings experienced little or no structural damage, but may be 
total losses due to failure of the building envelope and the resulting water 
entry. In this report, structural components are limited to those required to 
resist lateral and vertical loads and those that provide structural stability to 
the building. Generally, structural components in commercial buildings are 
limited to foundations and footings, beams, columns, load-bearing and shear 
walls, structural frames, and roof decks. Roof coverings, wall coverings, and 
non-load-bearing walls are not considered structural components.

The low-rise commercial buildings observed by the MAT to have sustained 
significant wind damage were older, pre-engineered metal buildings. While many 
older PEMBs were heavily damaged, newer ones performed much better. At St. 
Ansyslem’s School in Bay St. Louis, a PEMB constructed in 200  was not visibly 
damaged by wind (however, it did experience severe flood damage). Figures 3-49 
through 3-52 show examples of damage to PEMBs.

Figure 3-49. Low-rise PEMB that was severely damaged by wind. The building was 
constructed with steel moment frames and purlins, metal roof and wall panels, 
and unreinforced masonry infill walls (Gulfport, Mississippi). 

Figure 3-50. Low-rise PEMB at the Gulfport-Biloxi Airport severely damaged by 
winds. The building was constructed with steel moment frames and purlins, and 
metal roof and wall panels (Gulfport, Mississippi).

Figure 3-51. Wind, wave, and surge damage to St. Thomas Catholic Church. 
Destruction of the PEMB envelope likely reduced wind damage to the structure 
itself (Long Beach, Mississippi).

Newer, low-rise commercial buildings generally performed well, but like their 
high-rise counterparts, several sustained damage to their envelopes (see Figures 
3-52 and 3-53).

Figure 3-52. Newer low-rise PEMB that performed well structurally, but 
experienced some envelope damage. Metal coping along the top of the left wall 
(circle) was lifted by high winds (Bay St. Louis, Mississippi).

Figure 3-53. This bank building performed well structurally, but its envelope, 
specifically the metal roofing and brick, failed (Gulfport, Mississippi).

3.2.4 Wind Effects on Critical and Essential Facilities

The poor performance of critical and essential facilities was widespread 
throughout the Gulf Coast. Almost without exception, critical and essential 
facilities such as hurricane evacuation shelters, police and fire stations, 
hospitals, nursing homes, schools, and EOCs were damaged, and many were 
completely destroyed. While much of the damage to critical and essential 
facilities was caused by surge or stillwater flooding, high winds caused damage 
to many facilities, impacting the use and operations of the facility (see 
Figures 3-54 through 3-61). 

Figure 3-54. The Long Beach Police Station was severely damaged by high winds 
(Long Beach, Mississippi).

Figure 3-55. Wind damage to the New Orleans Fire Department 3rd District 
Headquarters (New Orleans, Louisiana) 

Figure 3-56. The Harrison Central Elementary School was used as an evacuation 
shelter during Katrina. Portions of its roof covering were blown off by high 
winds and many of its windows were broken by windborne aggregate from its own 
roof (Gulfport, Mississippi). 

Figure 3-57. Ceiling damaged by wind and rain entry due to soffit failure 
(Gulfport, Mississippi)

Figure 3-58. Window failed due to wind pressures, resulting in water entry into 
the building and damage to ceiling boards. After the failure, metal panels were 
installed for temporary protection (circled) (Gulfport, Mississippi). 

Figure 3-59. Temporary repairs for broken windows in Memorial Hospital. The 
black panels are painted plywood installed after the spandrel panels were 
damaged by windborne roof aggregate from the hospital's own roofs (Gulfport, 
Mississippi).

Figure 3-60. Temporary repairs required after combustion air louvers for 
emergency generators were blown off of the roof at the Garden Park Medical 
Center (Gulfport, Mississippi) 

Figure 3-61. The equipment on this new Federal courthouse blew away because it 
was resting no uplift resistance. Two large openings through the roof were left 
after the duct work blew away (temporary covers had been placed over the 
openings) (Gulfport, Mississippi).

Though not completely destroyed, most of the hospitals were damaged and other 
types of critical and essential facilities performed poorly. Most of the 
fourteen hospitals observed by the MAT experienced building envelope damage and 
a few were flooded. Often their ability to operate during and after the storm 
was due to the heroic efforts of their staff. Several of the hospitals had to 
contend with the loss of windows (see Figure 3-59), failed roofs and rooftop 
equipment (see Figures 3-60 and 3-61) and other exterior elements, loss of 
water, and, occasionally, loss of emergency power and communications.

3.2.5 Wind Effects on Historic Buildings

Wind effects on historic buildings were primarily limited to the removal of roof 
covering, sheathing, and limited curtain wall damage. Figure 3-62 is an example 
of a wood window that blew in. Even though these structures pre-date the 
building codes, buildings that had sufficient connection details in their design 
and construction, or were retrofitted, performed well against Hurricane 
Katrina’s winds. More detail may be found in Chapter 6.

Figure 3-62. Wind damage to a New Orleans church built in 1886 (New Orleans, 
Louisiana)