| Correctional SettingsJuly 2006 | Background | | Caring for the HIV-infected incarcerated patient is complex and challenging. For many
of these patients, the prison health service provides their first opportunity for
access to health care. HIV seroprevalence rates among inmates in the United States
are 5 times higher than in the nonincarcerated population (CDC, 2001). Within the
prison system in the United States, mortality due to AIDS has dropped dramatically
since the advent of effective combination antiretroviral therapy (ART), with the
number of AIDS-related deaths decreasing by 72% in state prisons between 1995 and
2002 (Maruschak, 2001). Often, behaviors that lead to incarceration also put inmates at high risk for
becoming infected with HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and other infectious diseases.
These risk factors may include unsafe substance use behaviors, such as sharing
syringes and other injection equipment, and high-risk sexual practices, such as
having multiple sex partners or unprotected sex. Many inmates also may have
conditions that increase the risk of HIV transmission or acquisition, such as
untreated sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Of the approximately 1.8 million inmates in the United States, 30-40% are infected
with HCV. The incidence is 10 times higher among inmates than among noninmates and
is 33% higher in women than in men (Nerenberg et al, 2002). Chronic hepatitis B
virus (HBV) infection and tuberculosis are substantially more common in the
incarcerated population than in the general public. The presence of any of these
conditions should prompt HIV testing (Nicodemus and Paris, 2002). | |
| Testing and Prevention | | The correctional facility is an ideal location for identifying those already infected
with HIV, HCV, and/or HBV, and for preventing infection among those at highest risk
for these diseases. The corrections setting is often the first site at which an
HIV-infected person interacts with the health care system, making it an important
avenue for HIV testing. HIV testing policies in correctional facilities vary from
state to state and among local, state, and federal penal institutions. Depending on
the setting, policies may require testing of inmates upon entry, upon release, or
both. Testing may be based on clinical indication or risk exposure during
incarceration, and may be voluntary or mandatory (Bartlett et al, 2000). The U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends routine counseling and
testing in settings with an HIV prevalence of 1% or higher. In high-risk settings
such as correctional facilities, routine, voluntary HIV testing has been shown to be
cost-effective and clinically advantageous (Paltiel, 2005). Testing and treatment of HIV-infected inmates prior to release is critical. Given the
high HIV seroprevalence rates among inmates, the reentry of inmates into the
community presents the danger of spreading HIV and other infectious diseases, and
thus is a public health concern. Inmates need adequate HIV prevention counseling
before release both to protect themselves and to decrease transmission of HIV to
others in their communities (Gaiter, 1996). Health care providers in correctional settings are in a key position to evaluate
inmates for HIV risk factors, to offer HIV testing, and to educate and counsel this
high-risk group about HIV. Inmates often are hesitant to be tested for HIV because
of fear of a positive diagnosis and because of the potential stigma involved. Often,
they lack accurate information about HIV, including awareness of behaviors that may
have put them at risk and knowledge of means for protecting themselves from becoming
infected. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated: "All inmates and correctional staff
and officers should be provided with education concerning transmission, prevention,
treatment, and management of HIV infection. For inmates, this information should be
provided at intake and updated regularly thereafter" (see: http://www.who.int/en/).
Risk reduction counseling addresses specific ways the inmate can reduce the risk of
becoming infected with HIV. If already HIV infected, the goal of counseling is to
reduce the risk of infecting others or becoming infected with a drug-resistant
strain of HIV. Education should focus on the use of latex barriers with all sexual
activity. Although condoms and dental dams are not available in most prisons and
jails, the inmate should receive education regarding their proper use. Inmates with a history of IDU should be educated that needle sharing conveys a high
risk of transmitting HIV, HCV, and HBV. Substance abuse treatment should be provided
when appropriate. Recovery from addiction often is a chronic process and relapses are common. In
addition to treatment, risk reduction strategies should include planning for support
after release. For example, prior to release, inmates should be provided with
information about needle exchange or clean needle access programs in their
communities. These programs have proved to be quite effective in decreasing the rate
of parenteral HIV transmission (CDC, 1999). | |
| Antiretroviral Therapy in Correctional Facilities | | In correctional facilities, as in any setting, a consideration of HIV treatment must
begin with educating the patient about the risks and benefits of treatment and the
need to fully adhere to the entire regimen, as well as with an assessment of the
patient's motivation to take ART. Correctional facilities have two medical policies for dispensing medications. Each
has advantages and disadvantages that can impact treatment adherence. | Keep on Person | | Keep on Person (KOP) is the system that allows the inmates to keep their
medications in their cells and take them independently. Monthly supplies are
obtained at the medical unit or pharmacy. This system offers greater privacy and
confidentiality regarding HIV status. It also allows the inmate to develop
self-sufficiency in managing medications, which may facilitate improved
adherence upon release. However, as the KOP system involves less interaction
with medical staff, problems with adherence can be more difficult to identify
(Ruby, 2000). In a study comparing DOT in HIV-infected inmates with KOP in nonincarcerated
HIV-infected patients receiving ART as part of a clinical trial, a higher
percentage of DOT patients achieved undetectable viral loads compared with the
KOP patients (85% vs 50%) over a 48-week period (Fischl, 2001). | |
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| Adherence | | Adherence is one of the most important factors in determining success of ART. For the
HIV-infected inmate starting ART, a number of issues can affect medication
adherence. These include patient-related factors, factors related to systems of care
(including the medication dispensing systems described above), and
medication-related factors. The following are suggestions for supporting adherence
to ART. | Patient-Related Factors | | | Provide alcohol and substance abuse treatment prior to initiating ART.
Without appropriate treatment during incarceration, linkages to supports,
and follow-up treatment upon discharge, the inmate is at risk for returning
to high-risk behaviors that may interfere with adherence to ART. | | | Utilize mental health consultation to identify inmates with psychiatric
needs. Treatment for underlying mental health disorders should precede or
occur simultaneously with the initiation of ART to ensure successful
adherence. Depression and other psychiatric illnesses are more prevalent
among inmates than among the general population (Maruschak, 2001). | | | Correct misconceptions about HIV and ART that are common among inmates and
could affect adherence adversely. The inmate should be educated about the
disease process and the role of the medications, along with the potential
risks and benefits of taking ART. | | | Encourage participation in peer support groups. These can be effective
ways to foster self-esteem, empower inmates to come to terms with a positive
diagnosis, allay fears and correct misconceptions about HIV disease, and aid
adherence. Upon release, telephone hotlines may be available to provide
follow-up support and linkages to community services. To the extent
possible, family and friends should be included in the education process. | | | Use teaching tools that are appropriate in terms of language and reading
level. Illiteracy and low-level reading ability are common among inmates.
Diagrams and videos may be more effective than reading-intensive material in
some cases. Basic HIV education prior to initiation of ART should include:
| How the medications work | | | Consequences of nonadherence | | | Names and dosages of all medications | | | Potential side effects with strategies to manage them | |
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| Factors Related to Systems of Care | | | Educate security staff about the importance of timely medication dosing,
and communicate with other facilities in advance of a transfer; this can
eliminate or limit missed doses. | | | Schedule frequent follow-up medical visits in the early weeks after ART is
initiated; these can make the difference in whether or not patients
"stay the course." | | | Consult with an HIV specialist, if possible. If a facility's
medical provider lacks experience in treating patients with HIV, the results
may be undertreatment of side effects, or ART prescribing errors. Because
caring for HIV patients is complicated, HIV specialists can provide
assurance that patients are receiving proper care. Of particular concern are
patients whose current ART regimens are failing, those who are declining
clinically, and those who are coinfected with other infectious diseases such
as tuberculosis, HCV, and HBV. | |
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| Medication-Related Factors | | Any consideration of HIV treatment must begin with educating the patient about
the risks and benefits of treatment and the need to fully adhere to the entire
regimen, as well as with assessing the patient's motivation to take ART. | Aggressively monitor and treat side effects. The most common
barrier to adherence to ART is side effects from the medications. The inmate
should be educated in advance about potential adverse events to observe and
report. In the first weeks after starting a new ART regimen, patients should
be assessed frequently for side effects. For treating gastrointestinal
toxicities, antiemetics and antidiarrheals should be available on an
as-needed basis. As with all patients on ART, inmates should have
appropriate laboratory monitoring. | | | Be aware of food requirements. Various food requirements must be
considered carefully when administering ART. This can be especially
challenging in the correctional environment, particularly if the facility
does not allow inmates to self-administer medications. Make arrangements
with prison authorities to provide food when inmates are taking medications
that require administration with food. | | | Avoid complex regimens and regimens with large pill burdens, if
possible. Simple regimens with few pills appear to help improve
adherence. | | | Avoid drug-drug interactions. Some antiretroviral medications have
clinically significant interactions with other drugs (eg, methadone, oral
contraceptives, cardiac medications, antacids). These interactions may cause
failure of either the antiretroviral drug or the other medication, or may
cause additional toxicity. Consult an HIV specialist or pharmacologist for
information on drug interactions. | | | The patient should be questioned about medication adherence at each
appointment. | | | ART regimens need to fit into each patient's schedule and
lifestyle. This becomes a bigger issue when the inmate is close to release.
Education about HIV management, including ART adherence, should begin well
before the inmate is discharged back to the community. At the time of
discharge from the correctional facility, all HIV-infected inmates should
have a discharge plan that addresses:
| Housing | | | Health insurance | | | 30-day supply of HIV medications | | | Follow-up appointments for medical care and, if necessary, psychiatric and substance abuse care | |
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A number of HIV education resources for inmates and correctional health care
providers are cited on Albany Medical College's Web site at http://www.amc.edu/patient/hiv/index.htm (go to the section on correctional education). | Chapter contributors | | Minda Hubbard, ANP-C, Research Nurse Practitioner; Douglas G. Fish, MD,
Medical Director; Sarah Walker, MS, Correctional Education Coordinator; and
Abigail V. Gallucci, Director of HIV Education--Albany Medical College's
Division of HIV Medicine (Upstate Local Performance Site and Regional
Resource for Corrections, New York/New Jersey AIDS Education &
Training Center) | |
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| References | | | The appearance of external hyperlinks does not constitute endorsement by the Department of Veterans Affairs of the linked Web sites, or the information, products or services contained therein. | | |
| Bartlett J, Rappaport E, Ruby W, et al. HIV in Corrections, Correctional Medical Institute. Available online at www.cm-institute.org/hivin.htm. Accessed February 7, 2006. | | | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug Use, HIV, and the Criminal Justice System. Available online at www.cdc.gov/idu/facts/druguse.htm. Accessed February 7, 2006. | | | DeGroot A, Cu Uvin S. HIV Infection among Women in Prison: Considerations for Care. Infectious Diseases in Corrections Report. Vol. 8, Issues 5 & 6; 2005. Available online at www.idcronline.org/archives/mayjune05/article.html. Accessed May 22, 2006. | | | Fischl M, Castro J, Monroid R, et al. Impact of directly observed therapy on long-term outcomes in HIV clinical trials. In: Program and abstracts of the 8th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 4-8, 2001; Chicago, IL. Abstract 528. | | | Maruschak L. HIV in Prisons, 2000. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, NCJ 196023; 2001. Available online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/hivp00.htm. Accessed May 22, 2006. | | | Nerenberg R, Wong M, DeGroot A. HCV in corrections: Front line or backwater? HEPP News. Vol 5 (4); 2002. Available online at www.idcronline.org/archives/april02/. Accessed May 22, 2006. | | | Nicodemus M, Paris P. Bridging the Communicable Disease Gap: Identifying, Treating and Counseling High Risk Inmates. HIV Education Prison Project; August/September 2001. Accessed February 7, 2006. | | | Paltiel AD, Weinstein MC, Kimmel AD, et al. Expanded screening for HIV in the United States--an analysis of cost-effectiveness. N Engl J Med. 2005 Feb 10;352(6):586-95. | | | Ruby W, Tripoli L, Bartlett J, et al. HIV in Corrections in Medical Management of HIV Infection. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2000. | |
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