|
Every day across the nation,
emergencies occur that threaten our lives, well-being, property,
peace, and security. Every day, we rely upon our local police
officers, firefighters, emergency medical technicians, public
health professionals, and others to arrive quickly and do
what needs to be done to restore the safety, the security,
the peace, and the routine to our lives. These emergency responders
are trained to handle such emergencies that occur day by day
in our cities, towns, villages, and countrysides. On rare
occasions, emergencies occur that are so large in scale and
so severe that local responders may not have the resources—people,
equipment, expertise, funds—to effectively and safely
respond. Even in such cases, local responders do not hesitate
to do what they have been trained to do—go to the site
prepared to save lives, protect property, and remove the threat.
|
When a disaster, whether natural or manmade, overwhelms the resources
and capabilities of local organizations, responders come in from
other cities, counties, and states—jurisdictions near and
far—as well as from federal agencies, to assist those with
local responsibility. Skilled support workers are engaged for specialized
activities, such as removing debris and restoring utilities and
transportation. Neighbors and other volunteers may travel to the
disaster site to try to do their part. Other concerned individuals
and organizations send food, supplies, and equipment. Journalists
press in to the closest possible vantage points to get the pictures
and stories. Public officials arrive to examine the damage and consult
with the responders. One characteristic of these large, rare, dynamic
events is the rapidly evolving complexity that faces individuals
trying to effectively manage all of the organizations and people,
operations and tasks, equipment and supplies, communications, and
the safety and health of all involved. Another characteristic is
that all disasters present risks to emergency response workers—risks
that may be familiar or unfamiliar, and that may vary widely depending
on the nature of the event or the phase of the response.
This report addresses the protection of emergency responders against
injury, illness, and death on just such rare occasions, when emergencies
become disasters. It builds on a broad base of National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health programs and RAND Corporation
research on protecting emergency responders. This report focuses
on preparedness (especially planning and training) and management
as means of controlling and reducing the hazards emergency responders
face. It provides a set of recommendations on how disaster site
safety and health management might be improved. Much of the information
contained herein is based upon the firsthand experience and suggestions
of emergency responders who were there at the World Trade Center
and at the Pentagon on and after September 11, as well as those
who responded to the Northridge earthquake (in California) and Hurricane
Andrew (in Florida).
This report builds on systems and practices currently in use and
was developed primarily for use by local emergency responders, those
individuals and organizations who have been tasked with disaster
site safety and health responsibilities. Additionally, the report
should prove useful to legislators and other federal, state, county,
and municipal officials; trade union officials; industry executives;
safety and health professionals; and researchers who are engaged
in and committed to efforts to make our nation more secure, to respond
effectively and safely to disaster, and to protect a critically
important resource—the community of emergency responders.
John Howard, M.D.
Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Stephen Rattien
Director RAND Science and Technology, a division of the RAND Corporation
The RAND Corporation Quality Assurance Process
Peer review is an integral part of all RAND research projects.
Prior to publication,
this document, as with all documents in the RAND monograph series,
was subject to
a quality assurance process to ensure that the research meets several
standards, including
the following: The problem is well formulated; the research approach
is well
designed and well executed; the data and assumptions are sound;
the findings are useful
and advance knowledge; the implications and recommendations follow
logically
from the findings and are explained thoroughly; the documentation
is accurate, understandable, cogent, and temperate in tone; the
research demonstrates understanding
of related previous studies; and the research is relevant, objective,
independent,
and balanced. Peer review is conducted by research professionals
who were not
members of the project team.
RAND routinely reviews and refines its quality assurance process
and also conducts
periodic external and internal reviews of the quality of its body
of work. For
additional details regarding the RAND quality assurance process,
visit http://www.rand.org/standards/.
Acknowledgments
An effort of this scope would clearly not be possible without the
assistance of many people and organizations. A large number of individuals
gave generously of their time and expertise to participate in both
data-gathering discussions and the workshop held as part of the
project. They are listed in Appendix A of the report.
In addition, a range of organizations assisted in the project by
direct participation of their leadership or staff in topical discussions
and/or by helping the project team connect with critical expertise
within the response community. Their assistance was invaluable in
ensuring that an effort of this breadth could tap needed expertise
from the response community. In particular, we would like to thank
the following organizations:
International Association of Chiefs of Police International Association
of Fire Chiefs International Association of Fire Fighters National
Association of Emergency Managers National Association of Emergency
Medical Technicians National Emergency Management Association National
Fire Protection Association National Voluntary Organizations Active
in Disasters Oklahoma City Memorial Institute for the Prevention
of Terrorism United States Fire Administration
We would like to single out several individuals who gave very generously
of their time in both speaking to us and helping us connect with
other individuals and information sources. They are Chief Allen
Hay of the Fire Department of New York, Tania Hedlund of the New
York Police Department, Bill Johnson of the Miami- Dade Fire Rescue
Department’s Office of Emergency Management, Kirby Kiefer
of the United States Fire Administration, Frank Koutnik of the Florida
Department of Community Affairs’ Division of Emergency Management,
Joseph Morris of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey,
and Vicki Lee of the International Association of Fire Chiefs. Mike
Tammilow, from the National Urban Search & Rescue Response System,
also generously provided information to the study team. In addition,
we would like to thank the staff of the Learning Resource Center,
United States Fire Administration, for their research assistance.
The authors would also like to gratefully acknowledge the many individuals
and organizations that participated in review of the draft report.
Many individuals within the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health made important contributions both to guiding the
study effort and to the content of the research as well. We would
like to acknowledge Kathleen Rest, deputy director for programs
of NIOSH; Scott Deitchman, assistant director for emergency preparedness;
Nancy Stout, director of the Division of Safety Research; and Tim
Pizatella, deputy director of the Division of Safety Research, for
their leadership and support of the project. We would particularly
like to acknowledge Thomas Hodous, the initial NIOSH project officer
for the study. In addition to his management roles, he participated
closely in the research effort and made important contributions
to the study. The project also benefited from access to a distinguished
team within NIOSH that brought together a broad range of expertise
on occupational safety and health. Beyond those who have already
been mentioned, they were Dawn Castillo, Terrence Cloonan, Robert
Koedam, Ken Mead, Paul Middendorf, Kara Perritt, Carol Merry Stephenson,
Jim Spahr, Jon Szalajda, and Ralph Zumwalde. Through project discussions
and other input, they provided the study with the benefit of a much
broader body of knowledge than would have otherwise been available.
The success of this project would also not have been possible without
the involvement of a range of RAND colleagues as both direct participants
in data gathering or as contributors of their own subject matter
expertise. Given the interdisciplinary nature of the topic, the
project team drew on the talents of researchers across RAND with
experience in military command and force protection, health care
issues, and the science and technology field. Beginning with the
initial literature review and interview process, Ari Houser, Suzannah
Sennetti, Sophia Washam, and Irene Brahmakulam played critical roles.
Later in the project, a larger group of individuals participated
in discussions as moderators and subject matter support to the project
workshop and in other roles. They included Donna Barbisch, Gary
Cecchine, Noreen Clancy, Robert Howe, David Howell, David Johnson,
David Kassing, Debra Knopman, Beth Lachman, Henry (Chip) Leonard,
Ralph Masi, David Mosher, David Mussington, D. J. Peterson, Steve
Rattien, Helga Rippen, Liz Sloss, Jerry Sollinger, Bradley Stein,
Terri Tanielian, Michael Tseng, Mike Wermuth, and Henry Willis.
Lieutenant Colonel Scott O’Neil, an Army fellow at RAND who
participated in the project, made important contributions. We also
benefited from support and input from Bruce Don, Jeff Isaacson,
Tom McNaugher, Bernie Rostker, Mark Wang, and Kathi Webb. We would
also like to thank Aarti Dalal, Aryn Thomas, and Leigh Stallings
for their administrative efforts on behalf of the project.
In particular, we would like to acknowledge the efforts of Susan
Bohandy of the RAND Research Communications group in the preparation
and refinement of the project report. Susan’s efforts were
instrumental in improving the quality of the report during the intense
final stages of the project. The project team is grateful for her
hard work in helping bring the study to a successful conclusion.
About the Authors
Brian A. Jackson
Brian Jackson is a physical scientist at RAND and coprincipal investigator
of this
study. Recent research areas include equipment and technology needs
of emergency
responders, terrorism preparedness, critical infrastructure protection,
and cyber security.
He holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Haverford College,
a master’s
degree in science, technology, and public policy from the George
Washington University,
and a PhD in chemistry from the California Institute of Technology.
John C. Baker
John C. Baker is a policy analyst at RAND and coprincipal investigator
of this study.
Recent research areas include homeland security and remote sensing.
He is a graduate
of American University (bachelor of arts in international studies)
and Columbia University
(master of philosophy in political science).
M. Susan Ridgely
M. Susan Ridgely is a senior policy analyst at RAND. In addition
to contributing to
the health and behavioral health components of this study on safety
management,
her recent research activities have focused on patient safety in
health care settings;
access to health care by ethnic minorities; and the implementation
of federal health
care policy on states, local communities, health plans, and health
care providers. She
holds a bachelor’s degree in psychology from Bryan College,
and the degrees of
MSW and JD from the University of Maryland.
James T. Bartis
James T. Bartis is a senior policy analyst at RAND. His research
interests are in the
areas of national security, including terrorism response, energy
policy, and research
and development planning. He is a graduate of Brown University (ScB
in chemistry)
and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (PhD in chemical physics).
Herbert I. Linn
Herbert I. Linn is associate director for Communications at the
NIOSH Division of
Safety Research and project officer for this study. His principal
efforts focus on communicating information on the risk and prevention
of traumatic occupational
injuries. Recently, he has conceived and participated in studies
on the use of computer
tailoring in preparing risk and prevention information, and the
use of narratives
in toolbox training programs. He holds a bachelor’s degree
in English from
Fairmont State College and a master’s degree in safety from
Marshall University.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
is the federal
agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations
for the
prevention of work-related injury and illness. NIOSH is part of
the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) in the Department of Health and Human
Services.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created both NIOSH
and the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA is in
the U.S. Department of Labor and is responsible for developing and
enforcing workplace safety
and health regulations. NIOSH is in the U.S. Department of Health
and Human
Services and is an agency established to help assure safe and healthful
working conditions
for working men and women by providing research, information, education,
and training in the field of occupational safety and health. NIOSH
provides national
and world leadership to prevent work-related illness, injury, disability,
and death by
gathering information, conducting scientific research, and translating
the knowledge
gained into products and services. NIOSH’s mission is critical
to the health and
safety of every American worker. Each day, an average of 9,000 U.S.
workers sustain
disabling injuries on the job, 16 workers die from an injury suffered
at work, and
137 workers die from work-related diseases. The Liberty Mutual 2002
Workplace
Safety Index estimates that direct costs for occupational injuries
in 1999 rose to
$40.1 billion, with indirect costs reaching over $200 billion.
The Institute’s responsibilities include:
- Conducting a focused program of research to reduce injuries
and illnesses among workers in high-priority areas and high-risk
sectors, including mining, agriculture, construction, and health
care.
- Implementing and maintaining a system of surveillance for major
workplace illnesses, injuries, exposures, and health and safety
hazards.
- Increasing prevention activities through workplace evaluations,
interventions, and recommendations.
- Providing workers, employers, the public, and the occupational
safety and health community with information, training, and capacity
to prevent occupational injuries and illnesses.
NIOSH is headquartered in Washington, DC, with research laboratories
and
offices in Cincinnati, OH; Morgantown, WV; Pittsburgh, PA; Spokane,
WA; and
Atlanta, GA. NIOSH is a professionally diverse organization with
a staff of over
1,400 people representing a wide range of disciplines including
epidemiology, medicine,
industrial hygiene, safety, psychology, engineering, chemistry,
and statistics.
For further information regarding the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health or worker safety and health, please contact:
John Howard
Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Hubert H. Humphrey Building
Room 715H
200 Independence Avenue, S.W.
Washington, DC 20201
Web: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh
Phone: 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674)
The Science and Technology Policy Institute
Originally created by Congress in 1991 as the Critical Technologies
Institute and
renamed in 1998, the Science and Technology Policy Institute is
a federally funded
research and development center sponsored by the National Science
Foundation.
The S&TPI was managed by the RAND Corporation from 1992 through
November
30, 2003.
The institute’s mission is to help improve public policy
by conducting objective,
independent research and analysis on policy issues that involve
science and technology.
To this end, the Institute
- supports the Office of Science and Technology Policy and other
Executive Branch agencies, offices, and councils
- helps science and technology decisionmakers understand the likely
consequences of their decisions and choose among alternative policies
- helps improve understanding in both the public and private sectors
of the ways in which science and technology can better serve national
objectives.
In carrying out its mission, the Institute consults broadly with
representatives from private industry, institutions of higher education,
and other nonprofit institutions. Inquiries regarding the work described
in this report may be directed to the address below.
Stephen Rattien
Director
RAND Science and Technology
1200 South Hayes Street
Arlington, VA 22202-5050
Web: http://www.rand.org/scitech/
Phone: (703) 413-1100 x5219
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ALSAC |
Air Land Sea Application Center |
CISD |
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing |
DHHS |
Department of Health and Human Services |
DMAT |
Disaster Medical Assistance Team |
EMS |
Emergency Medical Services |
EPA |
Environmental Protection Agency |
FEMA |
Federal Emergency Management Agency |
GIS |
Geographic Information Systems |
GPS |
Global Positioning System |
HSPD |
Homeland Security Presidential Directive |
IAFC |
International Association of Fire Chiefs |
ICS |
Incident Command System |
IMS |
Incident Management System |
ISO |
Incident Safety Officer |
JIC |
Joint Information Center |
LIDAR |
Light Detection and Ranging |
MIPT |
Oklahoma City National Memorial Institute for the Prevention
of Terrorism |
NFPA |
National Fire Protection Association |
NFSIMC |
National Fire Service Incident Management Consortium |
NIMS |
National Incident Management System |
NIOSH |
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |
NMRT |
National Medical Response Team |
NRP |
National Response Plan |
NVFC |
National Volunteer Fire Council |
OSHA |
Occupational Safety and Health Administration |
S&TPI |
Science and Technology Policy Institute |
US&R |
Urban Search and Rescue |
USCG |
U.S. Coast Guard |
|