Inclusion Criteria:

1. age 40-85;
2. mild-moderate hemiparesis, as defined by a score of > 30 on the Fugl Meyer Motor Assessment, upper extremity subscale (UE_FM)21, from a single unilateral middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke 1-5 years previously;
3. no history of drug/alcohol abuse;
4. ability to follow 3-step commands and provide informed consent;
5. no history of other neural disorder/dysfunction (including epilepsy), no serious medical illness or refractory depression;
6. at least 300 active upper extremity elevation in scapular plane (combination of flexion and abduction);
7. ability to extend the wrist 200, and two fingers and thumb 100 three times in a minute;
8. permission of physician (BRRC medical director or BRRC neurologist) to participate in strength training.

Exclusion Criteria:

1. spasticity in elbow or hand (Modified Ashworth Scale > 2);
2. Motor Activity Log32 scores >3 (which would indicate relatively good use of the upper extremity);
3. ability to complete 1350 shoulder elevation easily with elbow straight (e.g., doesn't hold breath, movement is fluid, little to no effort tremor observed);
4. ataxia, major sensory deficits, or hemi-inattention/neglect;

5. contraindications to MRI or TMS including:

   1. having certain kinds of metal, including a metallic implant or clip in the head/neck, metal implanted in the scalp area to which TMS will be applied, an implanted prosthetic heart valve, implanted medication pumps and lines, cardiac pacemaker, neuron-stimulation device, and orthodontic work involving ferromagnetic materials;
   2. having a tattoo consisting of permanent black eye-liner;
   3. pregnancy (the safety of magnetic resonance examination for embryos and fetuses, while likely very good based on available data, has not been completely established);
   4. engagement in occupations or activities that may cause accidental lodging of ferromagnetic materials or potential presence of embedded metal fragments from military activities, unless cleared by a head CT scan;
   5. severe and uncontrolled migraine headaches;
   6. taking of medications that lower seizure threshold, such as tricyclic antidepressants and neuroleptics;
   7. claustrophobia.