C. Analysis of Select Articles
Article 2 Summary
Commentary Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR),[5] the fact "that a religion is recognized as a state religion or that it is established as official or traditional or that its followers comprise the majority of the population, shall not result in any impairment of the enjoyment of any of the rights under the Covenant."[6] In other words, a state is entitled to declare an official state religion, provided that this does not result in discrimination against or the impairment of any rights of non-believers or adherents of other religions enumerated under the ICCPR. Article 2 establishes Islam as "a fundamental source of legislation." According to a recent study undertaken by the Commission, a number of Muslim countries where Islam is the state religion, including Egypt and the Gulf states, establish Islamic law, principles, or jurisprudence as ‘the basis for,' ‘the principal source of,' ‘a principal source of,' or ‘the source of' legislation."[7] However, in many of these cases, "no additional constitutional guidance is given to address the question of what governmental body, process, or mechanism, if any, is charged with assessing the conformity of legislation with Islamic principles or law. Moreover, many of these constitutions fail to provide any further definition of terms such as Islam or sharia to facilitate or limit interpretation of what "sharia" means.[8] In the case of Iraq, the draft constitution makes Islam "a fundamental source of legislation," and specifies that the Federal Supreme Court will be tasked with "interpretation of the provisions of the constitution."[9] It appears that the draft also attempts to limit the scope of possible interpretation under which the legislature or judiciary might determine that a law is in fact contrary to Islam by stating that no law can contradict "the undisputed rules of Islam." This formulation of article 2 follows closely the framework originally set out in the TAL,[10] with two modifications:
While the task of defining the scope and legal meaning of the term "undisputed rules of Islam" ultimately is expected to fall to the Federal Supreme Court, the constitution also requires, again following closely the TAL formula, that the Court simultaneously ensure that no law is contrary to the human rights guarantees set out in the constitution. The inclusion of this provision represents a significant improvement over prior draft language, as it appears to place respect for Islam and human rights on an equal level. Moreover, this approach is favorable to other "repugnancy clause" models, such as the one in Afghanistan's constitution, which fail to explicitly require the interpretation of Islam to be in accordance with recognized human rights protections. Despite the apparent effort to constrain any potential interpretation of Islam from going beyond its "undisputed rules" or running counter to human rights guaranteed in the constitution, the Commission previously has expressed concern, in the case of the TAL, that a constitutional arrangement establishing a role for Islam as a source of legislation nevertheless "could be used by judges to abridge the internationally recognized human rights of political and social reformers, those voicing criticism of prevailing policies, religious minorities, women, or others."[12] This concern is amplified by the fact that the draft constitution now allows for the appointment of "experts in Islamic jurisprudence" to the Federal Supreme Court, as discussed under analysis of article 89 below.[13] Part Two of article 2 also mirrors the TAL formulation, with some changes:
Guaranteeing Islamic identity may place the state in the role of protecting Islam, which in turn may permit the criminalization of apostasy, blasphemy, and other "offenses against religion" as well as result in discrimination against non-Muslims in a variety of areas. In recent years, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka interpreted a similar provision in their constitution (protecting Buddhism) to permit restrictions on the ability of the Catholic Church to obtain legal status in that country. This draft also contains promising language regarding the right to freedom of religion with respect to belief and practice, and specific mention of Yezidis may signal a positive development insofar as this religious group, which constitutes less than 1% of Iraq's population, is regarded by some Muslims as a religion of "devil worshippers." That said, there is still an open question as to whether the right to choose not to believe in any particular religion will be protected under this provision or whether other religions, such as the Baha'i faith will also be able to practice freely. According to article 3 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, "Persons belonging to minorities may exercise their rights...individually as well as in community with other members of their group, without any discrimination."[14] Furthermore, any attempt to discriminate against any religion or belief for any reason, including the fact that it may represent a minority population that is subject to the hostility of the predominant religious community, is suspect under international standards.[15] Recommendations
Article 3 Summary
Article 4 Summary
Article 7 Summary
Commentary This article, not found in the TAL, has the potential to be a positive provision in that it prohibits racism and the labeling of individuals as "infidels,"[16] problems that could impede democratic development and the exercise of human rights. However, the current wording of the article is very broad and, without further refinement, the provision could limit the exercise of the right to freedom of thought, expression, association and other fundamental rights and freedoms. Recommendation
Article 10 Summary
Commentary This article improves on previous draft language by identifying holy shrines and religious places generally as "religious and civilizational entities." Earlier drafts specifically cited Shi'a religious shrines only. That said, this provision still omits the word "all" from the text leaving open to interpretation which shrines and religious places merit recognition and/or safeguarding. Recommendation
Article 13
Second: No law shall be enacted that contradicts this
constitution. Any text in any regional constitutions or any other legal text
that contradicts it is deemed void. Summary
Article 14 Summary
Recommendation
Article 19
Second: There is no crime or
punishment except by a stipulation. The punishment shall only be for an act that
the law considers a crime when perpetrated. A harsher sentence than the
applicable sentence at the time of the offense may not be imposed.
Fifth: The accused is innocent
until proven guilty in a fair legal trial. The accused may not be tried on the
same crime for a second time after acquittal unless new evidence is
produced.
Ninth: Laws shall not have a
retroactive effect unless the law stipulates otherwise. This exclusion shall not
include taxes and fees laws.
Tenth: The criminal law shall
not have a retroactive effect, unless it is to the benefit of the
accused. Summary
Commentary According to the recent Arab Human Development Report, prepared by the United National Development Program, it "is imperative...that the constitution of those states which adopt the Shari'a, stipulate the principle that there is no crime or punishment other than prescribed by law."[21] Such a provision helps to protect against judicial imposition of crimes and punishments based on the judge's individual interpretation of Islamic law, rather than application of statutory law passed by the legislature. Recommendation
Article 29 Summary
Commentary According to the ICCPR, if a set of beliefs is treated as official ideology in a constitution, this shall not result in any impairment of the freedom of thought, conscience or religion, or in any discrimination against persons who do not accept the official ideology, or who oppose it.[22] Iraq is a signatory to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).[23] The Committee overseeing this treaty's implementation has recommended that "States parties should resolutely discourage any notions of inequality of women and men which are affirmed by laws, or by religious or private law or by custom,"[24] and has been critical of reservations taken by States Parties which invoke a religious vision of the family as a basis for noncompliance with the treaty, especially as regards articles 2 and 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. In fact, Iraq previously has submitted reservations to CEDAW on both of these articles, basing its objection to the treaty's equality provisions in part on the need to protect a role for sharia.[25] The Committee has recommended that "Whatever form [or concept the family] takes, and whatever the legal system, religion, custom or tradition within the country, the treatment of women in the family both at law and in private must accord with the principles of equality and justice for all people, as article 2 of the Convention requires."[26] Moreover, it maintains "the view that article 2 is central to the objects and purpose of the Convention" and that "reservations to article 16, whether lodged for national, traditional, religious or cultural reasons, are incompatible with the Convention and therefore impermissible and should be reviewed and modified or withdrawn."[27] Given the problematic nature of Iraq's existing reservations to CEDAW and the possible interpretation that may evolve from article 29, there is a basis for concern that the draft language may be used to limit women's rights specifically-or the rights of all Iraqis generally-based on the imposition of state-interpreted and state-sanctioned values flowing from a single religious tradition. Furthermore, under international standards, children should not be compelled to receive teaching on religion or belief that is against the wishes of the parents or guardians as a result of general programs prescribed by law. International standards dictate that the freedom of parents to ensure a religious and moral education cannot be restricted.[28] Recommendations
Article 31
Second: Individuals and
institutions may build hospitals or clinics or places for treatment with the
supervision of the state and this shall be regulated by law. Summary
Recommendations
Article 35
Second: The State shall
guarantee the protection of the individual from intellectual, political and
religious coercion. Summary
Commentary Under international law, no limitations are allowed on the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief, or on the freedom from coercion that would impair those rights.[29] This includes a prohibition on the "use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert. Policies or practices having the same intention or effect, such as, for example, those restricting access to education, medical care, employment" or other rights guaranteed under the ICCPR are similarly inconsistent with the treaty.[30] This draft article omits a clause found in the TAL that no one could be detained "by reason of political or religious beliefs."[31] Such a clause is critical to prevent the restriction of debate and dissent on religious and political questions based on the use of laws on blasphemy, apostasy, and other so-called "religious offenses." Recommendation
Article 36 Summary
Commentary Under international law, any restrictions placed on the exercise of rights must be both prescribed by law and necessary in pursuit of specific public interests. Specifically, the ICCPR requires that any limitation on the right to freedom of opinion and expression must be necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others or for the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals.[32] Any restriction on the rights to freedom of assembly and association must be "necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, public order...the protection of public health or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others."[33] In all cases, any limitations must be directly related and proportionate to the specific need on which they are predicated. Finally, the Human Rights Committee has found that "the concept of morals derives from many social, philosophical and religious traditions." Consequently, limitations imposed on Covenant rights "for the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition."[34] Recommendations
Article 37 Summary
Article 39 Summary
Commentary As currently formulated, this article leaves open to the legislature how Iraqis will access civil courts for matters relating to personal status. Ultimately, this decision may result in individuals being compelled to submit to religious courts on matters of personal status. Such a variegated system also may raise concerns with respect to equality and nondiscrimination between men and women, as well as between the various religious communities in Iraq. There are additional complications that may arise by not expressly guaranteeing that civil courts will be the default option for personal status matters:
Finally, international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International have previously observed that criteria for appointing religious court judges may fall short of international standards with regard to training for judicial personnel.[36] Recommendations
Article 40 Summary
Recommendation
Article 41 Second: The state shall guarantee the freedom of worship and the protection of the places of worship. Summary
Commentary Freedom of thought, conscience and religion or belief encompasses more than the "practice of religious rites." Use of the term "religious rites" may be narrowly interpreted and result in constraints against the right to freedom of religion or belief. The full scope of the right to manifest religion or belief includes the rights of worship, observance, practice, and teaching, broadly construed. Under international law, these rights, including the management of religious institutions, may be subject to only such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. Limitations are not allowed on grounds not specified under article 18 of the ICCPR, even if they would be allowed as restrictions to other rights protected in the Covenant, such as national security. Finally, limitations on the freedom to manifest a religion or belief that rely on morality must be based on principles not deriving from a single tradition.[37] Recommendation
First: All individuals are
free in the right to manifest religion or belief,
including:
Article 43 Second: The State shall seek the advancement of the Iraqi clans and tribes and shall attend to their affairs in a manner that is consistent with religion and the law and upholds its noble human values in a way that contributes to the development of society. The State shall prohibit the tribal traditions that are in contradiction with human rights. Summary
Recommendations
Article 44 Summary
Commentary Although international treaties such as the ICCPR permit certain limitations on human rights guarantees under specific, narrowly constructed conditions, this article open the door to limitations on rights that may go far beyond these conditions, and result in the possible undermining of the right while preserving its "essence." Judicial or legislative interpretation of what might violate the "essence of the right" leaves substantial room for diluting the scope of a given right and rendering human rights protections essentially ineffective. Recommendations
Article 48 (I swear by God the Almighty to carry out my legal tasks and responsibilities devotedly and honestly and preserve the independence and sovereignty of Iraq, and safeguard the interests of its people, and watch over the safety of its land, skies, waters, resources and federal democratic system, and I shall endeavor to protect public and private liberties, the independence of the judiciary and adhere to the applications of the legislation neutrally and faithfully. God is my witness). Summary
Commentary It is instructive to note that the constitutions of a number of predominantly Muslim countries may restrict to Muslim citizens the right to serve in government positions, and particularly to hold executive power based on the use of a specific Islamic oath. For example, in Yemen, the president, vice-president, members of the House of Representatives, prime minister, and other ministers must take the following constitutional oath: "I solemnly swear to God the Almighty that I shall abide by the Holy Koran and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammed..."[40] Recommendation
Article 87 Recommendation
Article 88
Second: To nominate the Chief Justice and members of the Federal Court
of Cassation, the Chief Public Prosecutor, the Chief Justice of the Judiciary
Oversight Commission and present them to the Council of Representatives to
approve their appointment. Recommendation
Article 89 Second: The Federal Supreme Court shall be made up of number of judges, and experts in Islamic jurisprudence and law experts whose number, the method of their selection and the work of the court shall be determined by a law enacted by a two third majority of the members of the Council of Representatives. Summary
Commentary Previous drafts of this article allowed for up to four out of nine justices to be trained in Islamic jurisprudence without any additional prerequisite of educational background or experience in civil law. Opening the Court bench to individuals whose only background is in sharia will place Iraq's judiciary in the company of Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan-some of the only countries in the world to allow individuals without traditional legal training to serve as judges in matters pertaining to civil law. Even Pakistan, which has sharia courts, also has a civil Supreme Court, which has overturned some of the worst excesses of sharia, including death sentences for blasphemy. According to basic principles formulated by the United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, "Persons selected for judicial office shall be individuals of integrity and ability with appropriate training or qualifications in law."[41] The rationale behind installing experts in Islamic jurisprudence on the bench is premised on the need to interpret the implications of having sharia as a fundamental source of legislation. However, the Federal Supreme Court can still reach these decisions based on the expert testimony of Islamic scholars that will inevitably be provided in the lower courts, or by consulting with additional experts as required by the Court. Moreover, requiring the appointment of experts in Islamic jurisprudence to Iraq's highest court may also run afoul of the UN General Assembly's view that methods of judicial selection shall not discriminate "against a person on the grounds of race, colour, sex, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or status."[42] The 2004 UNDP Arab Human Development Report has observed that independence of the judiciary is threatened in the Arab world in part as a result of the interference by undemocratic, ideological regimes. These regimes interfere with judicial independence under the pretext of "protecting the ideological foundations" of the state.[43] The system used for making judicial appointments is one means by which the executive or legislature may exert control over the judiciary. Indeed, those justices appointed to the Supreme Court who are trained in Islamic jurisprudence may be more likely to reflect an interpretation which favors the dominant religious sect. That said, the requirement of a 2/3 majority in this draft may be used to ensure an implementing statute that can prevent egregious attempts to abuse this article. However, from this draft it remains an open question whether actual appointment of judges ultimately will require a similar 2/3 majority. Recommendations
Article 99 Summary
Commentary Art. 50 of the TAL called for the creation of a National Commission for Human Rights, in accordance with the Paris Principles issued by the United Nations, "for the purpose of executing the commitments relative to the rights set forth in this Law and to examine complaints pertaining to violations of human rights." The TAL further envisioned that this Commission would "include an Office of the Ombudsman to inquire into complaints, [and have] the power to investigate, on its own initiative or on the basis of a complaint submitted to it, any allegation that the conduct of the governmental authorities is arbitrary or contrary to law." The importance of an independent body designed to monitor and investigate human rights complaints in Iraq cannot be overstated. Recommendations
Article 121 Summary
Commentary Many of Iraq's smaller ethnic and religious groups feel strongly that their group should be cited by name or else they fear they will be forced to assume Kurdish or Arab identity, as has occurred in the past. Some representatives of Iraq's indigenous Christian population are demanding that they be treated as one nation through the term "ChaldoAssyrian". These representatives want the term reinstated in the current draft as a means of better enabling them to protect their identity.
Article 122 Second: The fundamental principles mentioned in Section One and the rights and liberties mentioned in Section Two of the Constitution may not be amended except after two successive electoral terms, with the approval of two-thirds of the Council of Representatives members, and the approval of the people in a general referendum and the ratification of the President of the Republic within seven days. Summary
Recommendation
[1] Arts 2 and 130, Constitution of Afghanistan (2003). [2] In addition to meetings during the past year with President George W. Bush and senior Administration officials, including and Ambassador Zalmay Khalilzad, the Commission also met with Members of Congress, senior Iraqi government officials, Iraqi political party leaders, Iraqi minority ethnic and religious community leadership, and Iraqi civil society leaders. Across all of these levels of engagement, the Commission has continually stressed the need to ensure that Iraq's human rights commitments, as defined under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), are enshrined in the permanent constitution as a means of affording human rights protections for each and every Iraqi in line with recognized international standards. [3] As part of its effort to provide information to policymakers with regard to the content of constitutions in predominantly Muslim countries, the Commission released a study in March 2005 surveying how these countries address issues related to the relationship between religion and the state, and the provision of human rights guarantees, including the right to freedom of religion or belief. This study is available for download in English and Arabic from the Commission's website, http://www.uscirf.gov. [4] This analysis is based on an unofficial translation of Iraq's draft permanent constitution prepared by the United Nations on September 14, 2005. [5] Iraq signed the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) on March 23, 1976, without declaration or reservation. See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Human Rights, "Status of Ratifications of the Principal International Human Rights Treaties," June 9 2004. [6] Para. 9, Human Rights Committee, "General Comment No. 22: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion (Art. 18)," UN Doc. # CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, 30 July 1993. Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/9a30112c27d1167cc12563ed004d8f15?Opendocument (hereinafter, HRC General Comment No. 22). [7] Tad Stahnke and Robert C. Blitt, "The Religion-State Relationship and the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Comparative Textual Analysis of the Constitutions of Predominantly Muslim Countries" (U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom), March 2005, 10. See Oman Constitution (art. 2); Egypt Constitution (art. 1); the 1971 Provisional Constitution of the United Arab Emirates (art. 7); and Yemen Constitution 1994 (art. 3). Although the Syrian constitution does not establish Islam as the official state religion, it does make Islam a basis for legislation. [8] Stahnke and Blitt, 10. In Egypt, the interpretive role has fallen to the Supreme Constitutional Court, whereas in Pakistan, the constitution specifically assigns this role to the Federal Shariat Court. [9] Art. 90, Iraq Draft Constitution. [10] The Transitional Administrative Law (TAL) provides under Art. 7(a), that "Islam is the official religion of the State and is to be considered a source of legislation. No law that contradicts the universally agreed tenets of Islam, the principles of democracy, or the rights cited in Chapter Two of this Law may be enacted during the transitional period. This Law respects the Islamic identity of the majority of the Iraqi people and guarantees the full religious rights of all individuals to freedom of religious belief and practice" (emphasis added). [11] The judiciary likely will be tasked with determining the significance, if any, of this shift in wording. [12] U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, "Iraq: USCIRF Commends Extensive Protection of Human Rights in Interim Constitution," Press Release, March 8, 2004. Available at http://uscirf.gov/mediaroom/press/2004/march/03082004_iraq.html. [13] Art. 89, Iraq Draft Constitution. It has been argued by some parties to the drafting process that experts in Islamic jurisprudence would be a necessary component on the Federal Supreme Court given that the constitution establishes Islam as a source of legislation and prohibits any law that is deemed contrary to its "undisputed rules." [14] Art. 3(1), Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 47/135, December 18, 1992 (emphasis added). The ICCPR notes under article 7 that persons belonging to minority groups "shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language." [15] Para. 2, HRC General Comment No. 22. [16] In theory, this article may, by extension, cover accusations of apostasy as well. [17] Art. 15(c), Transitional Administrative Law (TAL). [18] Art. 12, TAL. [19] Art. 2(1), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). [20] Para. 5, Human Rights Committee, "General Comment No. 28: Equality of Rights Between Men and Women (Art. 3)," UN Doc. # CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10, March 23, 2000. Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/13b02776122d4838802568b900360e80?Opendocument. [21] Arab Human Development Report 2004 (AHDR), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), at 115. [22] Para. 10, HRC General Comment No. 22. [23] August 13, 1986. [24] Para. 44, CEDAW, "General Recommendation No. 21: Equality in Marriage and Family Relations," U.N. Doc. # A/49/38 February 4, 1994. Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/7030ccb2de3baae5c12563ee00648f1f?Opendocument (hereinafter, CEDAW General Recommendation No. 21). [25] Iraq's reservation reads in part: "1. Approval of and accession to this Convention shall not mean that the Republic of Iraq is bound by the provisions of article 2, paragraphs (f) and (g), of article 9, paragraphs 1 and 2, nor of article 16 of the Convention. The reservation to this last-mentioned article shall be without prejudice to the provisions of the Islamic Shariah according women rights equivalent to the rights of their spouses so as to ensure a just balance between them." A number of countries have protested the legitimacy of this reservation on the basis that it undermines the object and purpose of CEDAW. See http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reservations-country.htm#N31 and http://www.bayefsky.com/html/iraq_t2_cedaw.php. [26] Para. 13, CEDAW General Recommendation No. 21. [27] CEDAW, "Reservations to CEDAW," August 12, 2005. Available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reservations.htm. [28] Para. 8, HRC General Comment No. 22; Art. 5(2), Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, November 25, 1981. [29] Para. 8, HRC General Comment No. 22. [30]Para. 5, HRC General Comment No. 22. [31] Art. 15(c), TAL. [32] Art. 19, ICCPR. [33] Arts. 18, 19, 21, & 22, ICCPR; see also Art. 29, Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [34] Para. 8, HRC General Comment No. 22. [35] It should be noted that the right to freedom of religion and belief also protects the right to hold non-theistic or atheistic beliefs. International standards protecting these rights are not limited in application to traditional religions or to religions and beliefs with institutional characteristics or practices analogous to those of traditional religions. Para. 2, HRC General Comment No. 22. [36] Amnesty International, "BAOBAB for Women's Human Rights and Amnesty International Joint Statement on the Implementation of New Sharia-based Penal Codes in Northern Nigeria," March 25, 2002 AI Index AFR 44/008/2002. Available at http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engafr440082002. [37] Para. 8, HRC General Comment No. 22. [38] See analysis of article 29, above. [39] Art. 19, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. [40] Art. 159, Constitution of Yemen. [41] Art. 10, Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders "Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary," adopted September 6, 1985 and endorsed by General Assembly resolutions 40/32 of 29 November 1985 and 40/146 of 13 December 1985 (hereinafter "Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary"), emphasis added. Available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp50.htm. [42] Art. 10, "Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary." [43] UNDP, Arab Human Development Report 2004 (AHDR), at 122. [44] Art. 175, Constitution of Kuwait. |
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