Overview
Questions and Answers About Cartilage (Bovine and Shark)
Changes To This Summary (08/21/2007)
General CAM Information
Evaluation of CAM Approaches
Questions to Ask Your Health Care Provider About CAM
To Learn More About CAM

Overview

• Cartilage is a type of tough, flexible connective tissue (see Question 1 ¹).



• Cartilage from cows (bovine cartilage) and sharks has been studied as a treatment for cancer and other medical conditions for more than 30 years (see Question 2 ²).



• Laboratory and animal studies have looked at whether bovine and shark cartilage products can kill cancer cells, make the immune system more active against cancer, and prevent the body from making the new blood vessels that a tumor needs to grow (see Question 5 ³).



• Clinical trials (research studies with people) are under way to study cartilage as a cancer treatment for humans (see Question 6 ⁴).



• Studies to date have not proven cartilage to be an effective treatment for cancer in people (see Question 6 ⁴).



• The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved cartilage as a treatment for cancer (see Question 8 ⁵).

Questions and Answers About Cartilage (Bovine and Shark)

1. What is cartilage?

   Cartilage is a type of tough, flexible connective tissue that forms parts of the skeleton in many animals. Cartilage contains cells called chondrocytes, which are surrounded by collagen (a fibrous protein) and proteoglycans, which are made of protein and carbohydrate.

   Products containing cartilage are sold in the United States as dietary supplements. Companies that make cartilage products may not have a process in place to check that all batches they make are exactly the same. This means different batches of a cartilage product may contain different amounts or strengths of ingredients. Different binding agents (substances that make loose mixtures stick together) and fillers may be used in different batches. Therefore, the results of a particular clinical trial may be true only for the batch that was used in the study.

2. What is the history of the discovery and use of cartilage as a complementary or alternative treatment for cancer?

   Cartilage from cows (bovine cartilage) and sharks has been studied as a treatment for cancer and other medical conditions for more than 30 years. It was once believed that sharks, whose skeletons are made mostly from cartilage, do not develop cancer. This caused interest in cartilage as a possible treatment for cancer. Although malignant tumors are rare in sharks, cancers have been found in these animals.

   Early studies used extracts of bovine cartilage.

   • In the 1960s, it was first reported that bovine cartilage decreased inflammation (redness, swelling, pain, and feeling of heat).
   • In the 1970s, it was first reported that bovine cartilage contains a substance that blocks angiogenesis (the forming of new blood vessels). If blood vessel growth into a tumor can be blocked, the tumor will stop growing or shrink.
   • In the 1980s, researchers first described laboratory and animal studies and clinical trials (research studies in people) testing bovine cartilage as a treatment for cancer.

   Interest in using shark cartilage grew because it was believed that shark cartilage may be more active than bovine cartilage in preventing new blood vessels from being formed. Since a shark's skeleton is made mostly of cartilage, shark cartilage is more plentiful than bovine cartilage.

   • In the 1980s, it was first published that shark cartilage contains a substance that blocks blood vessel growth.
   • In 1998 and 2005, there were published reports of clinical trials of shark cartilage as a treatment for cancer.

   (See Question 5 ³ for more information about the laboratory and animal studies. See Question 6 ⁴ for more information about the clinical trials.)

3. What is the theory behind the claim that cartilage is useful in treating cancer?

   Three theories have been suggested to explain how cartilage acts against cancer:

   • As cartilage is broken down by the body, it releases products that kill cancer cells.
   • Cartilage increases the action of the body’s immune system to kill cancer cells.
   • Cartilage makes substances that block tumor angiogenesis (the growth of new blood vessels that feed a tumor and help it grow).

   Based on laboratory and animal studies, the third theory may be most likely. Cartilage does not contain blood vessels, so cancer cannot easily grow in it. It is suggested that a cancer treatment using cartilage may keep blood vessels from forming in a tumor, causing the tumor to stop growing or shrink.

4. How is cartilage administered?

   In animal studies, cartilage products have been given by mouth; injected into a vein or the abdomen; applied to the skin; or placed in slow-release plastic pellets that were surgically implanted (put into the body).

   In studies with people, cartilage products have been given by mouth; applied to the skin; injected under the skin; or given by enema (injected as a liquid into the rectum). The dose and length of time the cartilage treatment was given was different for each study, in part because different types of products were used.

5. Have any preclinical (laboratory or animal) studies been conducted using cartilage?

   A number of preclinical studies have been done with cartilage. Preclinical studies in a laboratory or using animals are done to find out if a drug, procedure, or treatment is likely to be safe and useful in humans. These preclinical studies are done before testing in humans is begun. Some research studies are published in scientific journals. Most scientific journals have experts who review research reports before they are published, to make sure that the evidence and conclusions are sound.

   Preclinical studies of cartilage looked at whether bovine and shark cartilage products can kill cancer cells in the laboratory, make the immune system more active against cancer, and prevent blood vessels from forming.

   The following has been reported from preclinical studies of the effect of cartilage on cancer cells in vitro (outside of the body):

   • In a published laboratory study, a powdered form of bovine cartilage called Catrix slowed the growth of human cancer cells by half or more. It is not clear if Catrix had this effect only on cancer cells, because its effect the growth of normal cells was not tested. It is also not known if the dose used in the laboratory study could safely be used in people.
   
   
   
   • In a laboratory study, a liquid form of shark cartilage called AE-941 /Neovastat was reported to stop the growth of a number of cancer cell types. The results, however, have not been published in a scientific journal.
   
   
   
   • In a published laboratory study of powdered shark cartilage, there was no effect on the growth of human astrocytoma cells (cancer cells that begin in the brain or spinal cord).
   
   
   

   The following has been reported from preclinical studies of the effect of cartilage on the immune system:

   • One published study reported that Catrix injected into mice caused their immune systems to be more active. This effect did not happen when Catrix was given by mouth.
   
   
   
   • A laboratory study on the effect of shark cartilage on a tumor model reported an increase in tumor-fighting immune cells in the tumor but not in the blood.
   
   
   
   • A study on the effect of shark cartilage on immune system response in mice reported a number of different effects, both helpful and harmful. It increased antibody response but decreased the activity of natural killer cells (tumor-fighting white blood cells). The study also reported a decrease in blood vessel growth.
   
   
   

   A large number of laboratory and animal studies on the effect of cartilage on angiogenesis have been published.

   The following has been reported from these studies:

   • Three substances that prevent blood vessel growth were found in bovine cartilage.
   
   
   
   • Two substances that prevent blood vessel growth were found in shark cartilage.
   
   
   
   • A liquid shark cartilage product given by mouth to mice slowed the growth of breast cancer cells and the spread of lung cancer cells.
   
   
   
   • A substance made from human cartilage slowed the spread of pancreatic cancer cells in an animal study and prevented blood vessel growth in both animal and laboratory studies.
   
   
   
   • Powdered shark cartilage given by mouth to rats decreased the growth of abdominal tissue cells.
   
   
   
   • Powdered shark cartilage given by mouth to rats decreased the growth of gliosarcomas, a type of brain cancer.
   
   
   
   • Two powdered shark cartilage products (Sharkilage and MIA Shark Powder) given by mouth to mice did not stop the growth or spread of squamous cell skin cancer.
   
   
   
6. Have any clinical trials (research studies with people) been conducted using cartilage?

   Since the 1970s, there have been more than a dozen clinical studies of cartilage as a treatment for cancer. Results from 7 studies have been published in scientific journals.

   The following has been reported in published studies:

   • A randomized clinical trial comparing treatment using BeneFin (a form of shark cartilage) to treatment using a placebo (an inactive substance that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, the substance being tested), in addition to standard care:

     In 83 patients with advanced breast cancer or colon cancer, there was no difference in the quality of life or survival rate between the group that received BeneFin and the group that received the placebo.

   
   
   
   • Case series (a collection of detailed information about individual patients) of 31 patients who were treated with Catrix:

     The cancer went into remission (signs and symptoms of cancer went away) in 19 patients and then recurred (came back) in about half of them. Some of these patients also received standard cancer treatment and there was no control group (a group of patients who do not receive the treatment being studied, to show if the treatment being studied makes a difference). For these reasons, the effectiveness of cartilage as a cancer treatment is not proven by this case series.

   
   
   
   • A clinical trial of Catrix in 9 patients whose cancers did not respond to radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy:

     One patient's cancer went into remission for more than 39 weeks and the other 8 patients did not respond to treatment with Catrix.

   
   
   
   • A clinical trial of Cartilade in 60 patients with advanced cancer:

     All but 1 patient had been treated with standard therapy before the trial. The cancer stopped growing in 10 of the patients for 12 weeks or more and then began to grow again. The cancer did not shrink or go into remission in any of the patients.

   
   
   
   • Clinical studies on the safety of the liquid shark cartilage product AE-941/Neovastat have reported that it has little harmful effect.
   
   
   
   • A randomized clinical trial studied the effect of AE-941/Neovastat on blood vessel growth related to wound healing after surgery. This study reported that one of the ingredients that prevents blood vessel growth can be absorbed and used by the body when taken by mouth.
   
   
   
   • A clinical trial of AE-941/Neovastat in 80 patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer reported that patients taking the highest doses lived the longest. The study also reported that there was no effect on tumors.
   
   
   

   Information is available on research studies that use complementary and alternative medicine.

   People who are interested in taking part in clinical trials should talk with their health care provider. Information on clinical trials can also be found by searching the following online databases:

   • The NCI PDQ® Clinical Trials Database ⁶ can be searched by cancer type, type of trial, location, trial sponsor, and/or drug name. This information is also available by calling NCI’s Cancer Information Service (1-800-4-CANCER [1-800-422-6237]; TTY: 1-800-332-8615).
   
   
   
   • The NCCAM Clinical Trials ⁷ Web page can be searched by the type of treatment or disease.
   
   
   
   • The OCCAM Clinical Trials ⁸ Web page provides links to the NCI PDQ® Clinical Trials Database.
   
   
   
   • ClinicalTrials.gov ⁹, a service of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) developed by the National Library of Medicine, is a searchable database containing information on clinical trials for many diseases and conditions, including cancer. The trials are being sponsored by the NIH and other federal agencies, and by drug companies in the United States, Canada, and other countries.
   
   
   
7. Have any side effects or risks been reported from cartilage?

   The side effects of cartilage treatment are usually mild or moderate.

   The most common side effects of treatment with the bovine cartilage product Catrix include the following:

   • Inflammation at the injection location.
   • A bad taste in the mouth.
   • Feeling very tired.
   • Nausea.
   • Upset stomach.
   • Fever.
   • Feeling dizzy.
   • Swelling of the scrotum (the sac that contains the testicles).

   The most common side effects of treatment with the shark cartilage include the following:

   • Nausea.
   • Vomiting.
   • Abdominal cramps and/or bloating.
   • Constipation.
   • Lower than normal blood pressure.
   • Higher than normal blood sugar.
   • General weakness.
   • A higher than normal level of calcium in the blood.

   Nausea, vomiting, and upset stomach are the side effects reported most often from treatment with the shark cartilage product AE–941/Neovastat.

   There has been one report of hepatitis occurring in a person who used shark cartilage.

8. Is cartilage approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a cancer treatment in the United States?

   The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved cartilage as a treatment for cancer. A number of cartilage products are sold in the United States as dietary supplements. In the United States, dietary supplements are regulated as foods, not drugs. A company does not need FDA approval to sell a dietary supplement unless it claims the product can treat or prevent disease.

Changes To This Summary (08/21/2007)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Changes were made to this summary to match those made to the health professional version.

General CAM Information

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)—also referred to as integrative medicine—includes a broad range of healing philosophies, approaches, and therapies. A therapy is generally called complementary when it is used in addition to conventional treatments; it is often called alternative when it is used instead of conventional treatment. (Conventional treatments are those that are widely accepted and practiced by the mainstream medical community.) Depending on how they are used, some therapies can be considered either complementary or alternative. Complementary and alternative therapies are used in an effort to prevent illness, reduce stress, prevent or reduce side effects and symptoms, or control or cure disease.

Unlike conventional treatments for cancer, complementary and alternative therapies are often not covered by insurance companies. Patients should check with their insurance provider to find out about coverage for complementary and alternative therapies.

Cancer patients considering complementary and alternative therapies should discuss this decision with their doctor, nurse, or pharmacist as they would any therapeutic approach, because some complementary and alternative therapies may interfere with their standard treatment or may be harmful when used with conventional treatment.

Evaluation of CAM Approaches

It is important that the same rigorous scientific evaluation used to assess conventional approaches be used to evaluate CAM therapies. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) are sponsoring a number of clinical trials (research studies) at medical centers to evaluate CAM therapies for cancer.

Conventional approaches to cancer treatment have generally been studied for safety and effectiveness through a rigorous scientific process that includes clinical trials with large numbers of patients. Less is known about the safety and effectiveness of complementary and alternative methods. Few CAM therapies have undergone rigorous evaluation. A small number of CAM therapies originally considered to be purely alternative approaches are finding a place in cancer treatment—not as cures, but as complementary therapies that may help patients feel better and recover faster. One example is acupuncture. According to a panel of experts at a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference in November 1997, acupuncture has been found to be effective in the management of chemotherapy-associated nausea and vomiting and in controlling pain associated with surgery. In contrast, some approaches, such as the use of laetrile, have been studied and found ineffective or potentially harmful.

The NCI Best Case Series Program ¹⁰, which was started in 1991, is one way CAM approaches that are being used in practice are being investigated. The program is overseen by the NCI’s Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine (OCCAM). Health care professionals who offer alternative cancer therapies submit their patients’ medical records and related materials to OCCAM. OCCAM conducts a critical review of the materials and develops follow-up research strategies for approaches deemed to warrant NCI-initiated research.

Questions to Ask Your Health Care Provider About CAM

When considering complementary and alternative therapies, patients should ask their health care provider the following questions:

• What side effects can be expected?
• What are the risks associated with this therapy?
• Do the known benefits outweigh the risks?
• What benefits can be expected from this therapy?
• Will the therapy interfere with conventional treatment?
• Is this therapy part of a clinical trial?
• If so, who is sponsoring the trial?
• Will the therapy be covered by health insurance?

To Learn More About CAM

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM)

The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) facilitates research and evaluation of complementary and alternative practices, and provides information about a variety of approaches to health professionals and the public.

NCCAM Clearinghouse

Post Office Box 7923 Gaithersburg, MD 20898–7923

Telephone: 1–888–644–6226 (toll free) 301–519–3153 (for International callers)

TTY (for deaf and hard of hearing callers): 1–866–464–3615

Fax: 1–866–464–3616

E-mail: info@nccam.nih.gov

Web site: http://nccam.nih.gov

CAM on PubMed

NCCAM and the NIH National Library of Medicine (NLM) jointly developed CAM on PubMed, a free and easy-to-use search tool for finding CAM-related journal citations. As a subset of the NLM's PubMed bibliographic database, CAM on PubMed features more than 230,000 references and abstracts for CAM-related articles from scientific journals. This database also provides links to the Web sites of over 1,800 journals, allowing users to view full-text articles. (A subscription or other fee may be required to access full-text articles.) CAM on PubMed is available through the NCCAM Web site ¹¹. It can also be accessed through NLM PubMed ¹² bibliographic database by selecting the "Limits" tab and choosing "Complementary Medicine" as a subset.

Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine

The NCI Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine (OCCAM) coordinates the activities of the NCI in the area of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). OCCAM supports CAM cancer research and provides information about cancer-related CAM to health providers and the general public via the NCI Web site ¹³.

National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cancer Information Service

U.S. residents may call the NCI Cancer Information Service toll free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237) Monday through Friday from 9:00 am to 4:30 pm. Deaf and hearing impaired callers with TTY equipment may call 1-800-332-8615. A trained Cancer Information Specialist is available to answer your questions.

Food and Drug Administration

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates drugs and medical devices to ensure that they are safe and effective.

Food and Drug Administration

5600 Fishers Lane

Rockville, MD 20857

Telephone: 1–888–463–6332 (toll free)

Web site: http://www.fda.gov/

Federal Trade Commission

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) enforces consumer protection laws. Publications available from the FTC include:

• Who Cares: Sources of Information About Health Care Products and Services
• Fraudulent Health Claims: Don’t Be Fooled

Consumer Response Center

Federal Trade Commission

CRC-240

Washington, DC 20580

Telephone: 1-877-FTC-HELP (1-877-382-4357) (toll free)

TTY (for deaf and hearing impaired callers): 202-326-2502

Web site: http://www.ftc.gov/

Glossary Terms

The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

Cancer that has spread to other places in the body and usually cannot be cured or controlled with treatment.

A substance made from shark cartilage that is being studied for its ability to prevent the growth of new blood vessels to solid tumors. It belongs to the family of drugs called angiogenesis inhibitors.

Blood vessel formation. Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of new blood vessels needed for tumors to grow. This is caused by the release of chemicals by the tumor.

A laboratory experiment using animals to study the development and progression of diseases. Animal studies also test how safe and effective new treatments are before they are tested in people.

A type of protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) in response to an antigen (foreign substance). Each antibody can bind to only one specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen.

A tumor that begins in the brain or spinal cord in small, star-shaped cells called astrocytes.

A substance that makes a loose mixture stick together. For example, binding agents can be used to make solid pills from loose powders.

A swelling or feeling of fullness in the abdomen. Bloating is usually the result of gas in the intestines and can be caused by many things, including overeating, lactose intolerance, and constipation. Bloating can also be a side effect of cancer or cancer treatment.

A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.

The force of circulating blood on the walls of the arteries. Blood pressure is taken using two measurements: systolic (measured when the heart beats, when blood pressure is at its highest) and diastolic (measured between heart beats, when blood pressure is at its lowest). Blood pressure is written with the systolic blood pressure first, followed by the diastolic blood pressure (for example 120/80).

A tube through which the blood circulates in the body. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.

A mineral found in teeth, bones, and other body tissues.

A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.

The Cancer Information Service is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), or by using the LiveHelp instant-messaging service at https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/livehelp/welcome.asp. Also called CIS.

A sugar molecule. Carbohydrates can be small and simple (for example, glucose) or they can be large and complex (for example, polysaccharides such as starch, chitin or cellulose).

A tough, flexible tissue that lines joints and gives structure to the nose, ears, larynx, and other parts of the body.

A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment.

The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.

Cartilage cell. Chondrocytes make the structural components of cartilage.

A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical trial.

A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical study.

A fibrous protein found in cartilage and other connective tissue.

Cancer that forms in the tissues of the colon (the longest part of the large intestine). Most colon cancers are adenocarcinomas (cancers that begin in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids).

Supporting tissue that surrounds other tissues and organs. Specialized connective tissue includes bone, cartilage, blood, and fat.

A condition in which stool becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass, and bowel movements don’t happen very often. Other symptoms may include painful bowel movements, and feeling bloated, uncomfortable, and sluggish.

In a clinical trial, the group that does not receive the new treatment being studied. This group is compared to the group that receives the new treatment, to see if the new treatment works.

A product that is added to the diet. A dietary supplement is taken by mouth, and usually contains one or more dietary ingredient (such as vitamin, mineral, herb, amino acid, and enzyme). Also called nutritional supplement.

The amount of medicine taken, or radiation given, at one time.

Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic.

The injection of a liquid through the anus into the large bowel.

In medicine, a preparation of a substance obtained from plants, animals, or bacteria and used as a drug or in drugs.

An increase in body temperature above normal (98.6 degrees F), usually caused by disease.

Containing or resembling fibers.

An inactive substance used to make a product bigger or easier to handle. For example, fillers are often used to make pills or capsules because the amount of active drug is too small to be handled conveniently.

An agency in the U.S. federal government whose mission is to protect public health by making sure that food, cosmetics, and nutritional supplements are safe to use and truthfully labeled. The Food and Drug Administration also makes sure that drugs, medical devices, and equipment are safe and effective, and that blood for transfusions and transplant tissue are safe. Also called FDA.

A type of glioma (cancer of the brain that comes from glial, or supportive, cells).

Disease of the liver causing inflammation. Symptoms include an enlarged liver, fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and dark urine.

The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.

A substance or object that is put in the body as a prosthesis, or for treatment or diagnosis.

Redness, swelling, pain, and/or a feeling of heat in an area of the body. This is a protective reaction to injury, disease, or irritation of the tissues.

Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."

Research done in a laboratory. These studies may use test tubes or animals to find out if a drug, procedure, or treatment is likely to be useful. Laboratory studies take place before any testing is done in humans.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the lung, usually in the cells lining air passages. The two main types are small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. These types are diagnosed based on how the cells look under a microscope.

Cancerous. Malignant tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.

A federal agency in the U.S. that conducts biomedical research in its own laboratories; supports the research of non-Federal scientists in universities, medical schools, hospitals, and research institutions throughout the country and abroad; helps in the training of research investigators; and fosters communication of medical information. Access the National Institutes of Health Web site at http://www.nih.gov. Also called NIH.

A type of white blood cell that contains granules with enzymes that can kill tumor cells or microbial cells. Also called large granular lymphocyte and NK cell.

A feeling of sickness or discomfort in the stomach that may come with an urge to vomit. Nausea is a side effect of some types of cancer therapy.

A group of lung cancers that are named for the kinds of cells found in the cancer and how the cells look under a microscope. The three main types of non-small cell lung cancer are squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. Non-small cell lung cancer is the most common kind of lung cancer.

A disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the tissues of the pancreas. Also called exocrine cancer.

PDQ is an online database developed and maintained by the National Cancer Institute. Designed to make the most current, credible, and accurate cancer information available to health professionals and the public, PDQ contains peer-reviewed summaries on cancer treatment, screening, prevention, genetics, complementary and alternative medicine, and supportive care; a registry of cancer clinical trials from around the world; and directories of physicians, professionals who provide genetics services, and organizations that provide cancer care. Most of this information, and more specific information about PDQ, can be found on the NCI's Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq. Also called Physician Data Query.

An inactive substance or treatment that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested. The effects of the active drug or treatment are compared to the effects of the placebo.

Research using animals to find out if a drug, procedure, or treatment is likely to be useful. Preclinical studies take place before any testing in humans is done.

A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.

A molecule that contains both protein and glycosaminoglycans, which are a type of polysaccharide. Proteoglycans are found in cartilage and other connective tissues.

The overall enjoyment of life. Many clinical trials assess the effects of cancer and its treatment on the quality of life. These studies measure aspects of an individual’s sense of well-being and ability to carry out various activities.

The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and radiotherapy.

A study in which the participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments; neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which group. Using chance to assign people to groups means that the groups will be similar and that the treatments they receive can be compared objectively. At the time of the trial, it is not known which treatment is best. It is the patient's choice to be in a randomized trial.

The last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.

To come back or to return.

A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although cancer still may be in the body.

A person who has studied science, especially one who is active in a particular field of investigation.

In males, the external sac that contains the testicles.

A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.

The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage.

A column of nerve tissue that runs from the base of the skull down the back. It is surrounded by three protective membranes, and is enclosed within the vertebrae (back bones). The spinal cord and the brain make up the central nervous system, and spinal cord nerves carry most messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells that look like fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma.

In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used. Health care providers are obligated to provide patients with standard therapy. Also called best practice and standard of care.

An organ that is part of the digestive system. The stomach helps digest food by mixing it with digestive juices and churning it into a thin liquid.

A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.

The percentage of people in a study or treatment group who are alive for a certain period of time after they were diagnosed with or treated for a disease, such as cancer. The survival rate is often stated as a five-year survival rate, which is the percentage of people in a study or treatment group who are alive five years after diagnosis or treatment. Also called overall survival rate.

An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.

One of two egg-shaped glands inside the scrotum that produce sperm and male hormones. Also called testis.

A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.

An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancerous), or malignant (cancerous). Also called neoplasm.

Cells, tissues, or animals used to study the development and progression of cancer, and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human tumors or other tissues are called xenograft models.

A blood vessel that carries blood to the heart from tissues and organs in the body.

To eject some or all of the contents of the stomach through the mouth.

Refers to a blood cell that does not contain hemoglobin. White blood cells include lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, and mast cells. These cells are made by bone marrow and help the body fight infections and other diseases. Also called WBC.

A break in the skin or other body tissues caused by injury or surgical incision (cut).