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Personal control is the perception that one has the ability, resources,
or opportunities to get positive outcomes or avoid negative
effects through one's own actions. The concept of control
has been one of the most pervasive and enduring ideas in psychological
research and theory. Numerous theories posit an important
role in human behavior for control constructs such as self-efficacy
(Bandura,
1977
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Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory
of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
), personal causation (deCharms,
1968
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deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal
affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic
Press. ), effectance motivation (White,
1959
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White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept
of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297-330.
), perceived control (Thompson,
1981
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Thompson, S. C. (1981). A complex answer to a simple question:
Will it hurt less if I can control it? Psychological Bulletin,
90, 89-101. ), and helplessness
(Seligman,
1975
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Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development,
and death. San Francisco: Freeman. ).
Having a sense of control has consistently been found to
have adaptive effects. Perceived control is associated with
emotional well-being, reduced physiological impact of stressors,
enhanced ability to cope with stress, improved performance,
less pain, and a greater likelihood of making difficult behavior
changes (Thompson
& Spacapan, 1991
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Thompson, S. C. & Spacapan, S. (1991). Perceptions of
control in vulnerable populations. Journal of Social Issues,
47, 1-21. ). Across a variety of environments,
from the classroom to the workplace to the medical center,
and in diverse populations including children to older adults,
it is generally adaptive to have a sense of control.
Personal control is an important predictor of health behaviors
for several reasons. First, individuals may need to feel efficacious
in order to decide to make behavior changes. If people do
not feel they have the skills to change a particular behavior
(e.g., stop smoking), they are unlikely to exert the effort.
Second, research on animals and humans has found that feelings
of helplessness generally decrease attempts to change one's
situation even when effective action is available (Seligman,
1975
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Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development,
and death. San Francisco: Freeman. ). Thus low personal
control can lead to apathy that depresses the likelihood of
any attempts to make positive changes. Furthermore, one particular
type of control, control over one's own actions, is likely
to play an important role in effective lifestyle changes.
For instance, a dieter presented with a tray of high-fat sweets
needs to exert self-control in order to maintain his or her
weight loss plan. Low levels of self-control are not compatible
with successful health protective changes if the changes necessitate
restricting oneself from temptation. Finally, the preference
or desire for control may be an important determinant of whether
or not people decide to make health-protective changes. Those
high in desire for control may act to make changes themselves
whereas those low in desire for control may want others to
act for them or use a more fatalistic or passive approach.
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