African-American History Program

What we need is not a history of selected races or nations, but the history of the world void of national bias, race, hate, and religious prejudice.

- Carter G, Woodson, 1926

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A Portrait Collection of the National Academy of Sciences

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African-Americans have made significant contributions to the physical sciences, life sciences, and social sciences in the 143 years since they were freed from slavery. Many of these scientists, engineers, medical practitioners, and researchers had to overcome awesome obstacles. New knowledge, born from their brilliance and perseverance, has benefited humankind. The staff of the National Academies recognizes these achievements by proudly displaying this collection of photographs of representative African-American scientists.

Many of the historic photographs in this collection are from the Scurlock Studio Archives. The career of Addison N. Scurlock began in the early 1900s and spanned more than six decades. His Washington, D.C., studio was a center for documenting the intellectual and cultural life of African Americans in the nation’s capital. His camera focused on educators, artists, scientists, musicians, politicians, and many others.

As of February 2005 portraits of the following individuals are included in the collection:

ARCHIE A. ALEXANDER (1888–1958), an engineer, headed his own civil engineering firm for more than forty years. Among the numerous projects his firm completed are Washington, D.C.’s Tidal Basin Bridge and the K Street Freeway. Although it was, at that time, not illegal to deny work on the basis of race, Alexander competed successfully with white firms building bridges, airfields, sewer systems, and power plants all over the United States. In 1945, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Alexander governor of the Virgin Islands.

HAROLD AMOS (1919– ) is the Maude and Lilian Presley Professor of microbiology and molecular genetics (emeritus) at the Harvard Medical School, where he has served on the faculty since 1954. His primary research area, hexose metabolism in mammalian cells, is essential to the understanding and treatment of diseases such as diabetes and some forms of immune deficiency. Dr. Amos was a Fulbright Scholar in 1951 and received the Dr. Charles Drew World Medical Prize in 1989. He is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 1991 was elected a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and a member of the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Amos was also awarded the Public Welfare medal of the National Academy of Sciences in 1995 and an honorary degree by Harvard University in 1996.

BENJAMIN BANNEKER (1731–1806) worked with Pierre L’Enfant, Andrew Ellicott, and others to plan Washington, D.C., the new capital of the United States. After Mr. L’Enfant was dismissed from the project and took his detailed maps with him, Mr. Banneker was able to reproduce the maps from memory and complete the survey. Before being appointed by President George Washington to work on the capital, Mr. Banneker distinguished himself as a self-taught mathematician and astronomer. He predicted the solar eclipse that occurred on April 14, 1789, contradicting forecasts by more prominent astronomers. Two years later Mr. Banneker began publishing the Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac and Ephemeris, which became a regional bestseller and was published until 1802.

MARY McLEOD BETHUNE (1875–1955) was a sociologist and a special adviser on minority affairs to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the years of the Great Depression, Dr. Bethune was director of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administration. She served on numerous presidential commissions under Presidents Coolidge, Hoover, and Roosevelt. In 1904 she founded the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro Girls, which later merged with a boys school to become Bethune-Cookman College. Dr. Bethune was its president. She served as president of the National Association of Colored Women and later, in 1935, was a founder of the National Council of Negro Women. Among her many awards is the Spingarn Medal presented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

KEITH L. BLACK (1957– ) is a renowned neurosurgeon and scientist who is the Director of the Neurosurgical Institute and holds the Ruth and Lawrence Harvey Chair in Neurosciences at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. Dr. Black is also Chairman of the Department of Neurological Surgery at the University of California, Irvine. At age 17 Dr. Black published his first scientific paper, which earned the Westinghouse Science Award. He completed an accelerated college program at the University of Michigan and earned both his undergraduate and medical degrees in six years. He completed his internship in general surgery and residency in neurological surgery at the University of Michigan Medical Center in Ann Arbor. Dr. Black has pioneered research on designing ways to open the blood-brain barrier, enabling chemotherapeutic drugs to be delivered directly into the tumor.

DAVID HAROLD BLACKWELL (1919– ) has made important contributions to the fields of applied mathematics and statistics. His ability to express a concept has added much to the introduction of modern statistical methods in mathematics. Dr. Blackwell often uses powerful and highly innovative mathematical techniques to arrive at the solutions to his research problems. Now professor of statistics at the University of California at Berkeley, he also taught at Howard and Clark Universities. In his youth he was a Rosenwald Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. Dr. Blackwell was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences in 1965.

EDWARD ALEXANDER BOUCHET (1852-1918) entered Yale College in 1870 and graduated summa cum laude and sixth in his class in 1874. He was nominated for Phi Beta Kappa that year, making him the first African American nominated for the society, but because Yale's chapter of PBK was largely inactive for a period of 10+ years, he was not elected until 1884 when the chapter was reorganized. After finishing his undergraduate degree, Bouchet continued studying at Yale, receiving his Ph.D. in physics in 1876, with a dissertation entitled “Measuring Refractive Indices.” This made him the sixth American Ph.D. in physics and the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in any field from an American university. Dr. Bouchet dedicated his life and career to the academic education of younger African-Americans, teaching chemistry and physics at high schools around the country. Though he died alone and in obscurity, Dr. Bouchet inspired his students, black and white, to reach for goals they would have never imagined without his influence.

RANDOLPH W. BROMERY geologist and geophysicist, is president of Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts. As an educator he has held many distinguished posts at the University of Massachusetts, including chancellor, executive vice president, and commonwealth professor of geophysics. He was also chancellor of the Massachusetts Board of Regents of Higher Education. He has been awarded distinguished alumnus awards by Howard University and Johns Hopkins University, where he is also on the Board of Trustees. In addition, Dr. Bromery was one of the Tuskeegee Airmen, the remarkably successful African American unit serving in the U.S. Air Force during World War II. He has served on numerous advisory boards for the federal government as well committees of the National Research Council.

RALPH J. BUNCHE (1904–1971), political scientist and a founder of the United Nations (UN), was a key UN diplomat for more than two decades. In 1950 Dr. Bunche became the first African American to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. Earlier, while with the U.S. Department of State (1944–1946), he wrote the trusteeship portions of the UN Charter that address colonization. In 1948 he was appointed to a permanent post at the UN, where his outstanding skills as a negotiator could be most useful. He became undersecretary for special political affairs at the UN in 1957; in 1968 he was appointed undersecretary general. Dr. Bunche was a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

GEORGE CARRUTHERS (1939– ) is an engineer and astrophysicist at the Naval Research Laboratory. He was the principal scientist responsible for the development of a special camera that made the trip to the moon aboard Apollo 16 in 1972. The camera was designed to study the earth’s upper atmosphere, interplanetary and interstellar space, stars, and galaxies by making observations of light in the far-ultraviolet. Later versions of the camera have flown on Skylab 4, two space shuttle flights, and the currently orbiting ARGOS satellite. Dr. Carruthers is also involved in numerous community-based organizations where he encourages students of all races to pursue their interests in the sciences. Many high school and college students have worked as research apprentices with Dr. Carruthers assembling equipment and test components and reducing data for astronomy experiments on the space shuttle and other satellite missions. Dr. Carruthers has been honored by awards from NASA, the American Astronomical Society, the National Science Foundation, and other organizations.

BENJAMIN SOLOMON CARSON, SR. (1951– ) is director of pediatric neurosurgery as well as associate professor of neurosurgery, oncology, plastic surgery, and pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University. He performed the first successful separation of Siamese twins joined at the back of the head. He codeveloped a pediatric craniofacial surgery program, combining both neurosurgery and plastic surgery procedures, significantly decreasing the time in surgery and risk to the patient. A graduate of Yale University and the University of Michigan Medical School, Dr. Carson has been awarded numerous honors, including eighteen honorary doctorates, and several scholarship programs have been established in his name.

GEORGE WASHINGTON CARVER (early 1860s–1943) was an agricultural chemist. Born into slavery, he helped revolutionize the South’s economy by liberating it from dependence on cotton as its sole crop. During his 47 years at Tuskeegee Institute, where he headed the Department of Agricultural Research, Dr. Carver developed more than 300 products from peanuts. His experiments also led to the development of multiple uses for soybeans and other indigenous, but previously unutilized, crops. He helped southern farmers improve their lot by inaugurating farm demonstration programs. Dr. Carver was a member of the Royal Society of Arts, London.

JEWEL PLUMMER COBB (1924– ) has been the trustee professor since 1990 and, since 1991, director of the ACCESS Center at California State University in Los Angeles. Formerly president of California State University in Fullerton (1981–1990), Dr. Cobb has done extensive cancer research, specializing in cell biology, and was a member of the National Science Board from 1974 to 1980. The recipient of several honorary doctorates and many awards, including the Kilby Award for lifetime achievement in 1995, Dr. Cobb was elected to membership in the Institute of Medicine in 1974.

W. MONTAGUE COBB (1904–1990) was a distinguished professor of anatomy best known for his research in physical anthropology, the growth and development of the African American, and aging in the adult skeleton. He also chronicled the history of African Americans in medicine. Dr. Cobb served on the Executive Committee of the White House Conference on Health in 1965. In 1978 he received the U.S. Navy Distinguished Public Service Award and was the 1980 recipient of the Henry Gray Award, the highest honor bestowed by the American Association of Anatomists.

CHRISTINE VONCILE MANN DARDEN is responsible for advocacy, planning, and management of the aeronautical work at NASA’s Langley Research Center done under the auspices of externally-led programs. During her career, has conducted extensive research for NASA in supersonic aircraft noise, especially in the area of sonic boom reduction. Dr. Darden has also been active with various boards and committees of the National Technical Association, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, and the Presbyterian Church (USA), where she has also served as an ordained elder. Her many awards include the Lifetime Achievement Award from Women in Aerospace and the Black Engineer of the Year Award for Outstanding Achievement in Government by the Council of Engineering Deans of Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

HAILE T. DEBAS (1937– ), surgeon and educator, gained national recognition as a gastrointestinal investigator and has made original contributions to the physiology, biochemistry, and pathophysiology of gastrointestinal peptide hormones. In 1987 Dr. Debas, who is keenly interested in education, was recruited to chair the department of surgery at the University of California, San Francisco. Under his leadership, the department has become one of the best academic departments of surgery in the United States. Dr. Debas was elected to membership in the Institute of Medicine in 1990.

CHARLES R. DREW (1904–1950), medical researcher and surgeon, was a pioneer in the preservation of blood. Through his outstanding work on blood plasma, Dr. Drew helped save thousands of lives during World War II. The blood plasma bank he organized became the model for the system used nationwide today by the American Red Cross. In his position as chief surgeon and chief of staff at Freedman’s Hospital in Washington, D.C., Dr. Drew trained many of today’s distinguished black surgeons.

WILLIAM E.B. DuBOIS (1868–1963), social scientist, teacher, author, and political activist was an avid advocate for civil rights for all people. Dr. DuBois earned his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1895. A founder of the national Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and for many years editor of The Crisis magazine, Dr. DuBois is considered the first African American sociologist and is noted as a major interpreter of American history and culture. Dr. DuBois was a founder and leader of the pan-Africa movement and a founder of the Niagara Movement, an organization of African American intellectuals who promoted civil rights. Dr. DuBois was the author of nineteen books. His classic work is The Souls of Black Folk.

RHETAUGH GRAVES DUMAS is Vice Provost Emerita of the University of Michigan and Dean Emerita of the University of Michigan School of Nursing. She has also served as Deputy Director of the National Institute of Mental Health. A member of the Institute of Medicine, a charter member and former president of the American Academy of Nursing, past president of the National League for Nursing, and a fellow of the A. K. Rice Institute, she holds a B.S. in Nursing, an M.S. in Psychiatric Nursing, and a Ph.D. in Social Psychology. She is the recipient of the President’s 21st Century Award from the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

MARIAN WRIGHT EDELMAN earned her law degree from Yale University and became the first African American woman to be admitted to the bar in Mississippi. As a leader with the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, Mrs. Edelman helped coordinate the Poor People’s Campaign after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and founded the Children’s Defense Fund, which became a powerful and successful advocate for government programs such as Head Start to benefit underprivileged and neglected children, foster children, and children with disabilities. Mrs. Edelman has received the Presidential Medal of Freedom Award, has chaired the Board of Trustees of Spelman College, and has written several books on the welfare of children and families.

VERNICE FERGUSON was a Senior Fellow in the School of Nursing at the University of Pennsylvania, holding the Fagin Family Chair in Cultural Diversity from 1993–1997. From 1980 to 1992 she was the Assistant Chief Medical Director for Nursing Programs in the Department of Veterans Affairs. In this position she was responsible for the largest organized nursing service in the world, with more than 60,000 nursing personnel. Prior to this assignment, she was the Chief of the Nursing Department at the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health. She is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing of the United Kingdom, the second American nurse so honored. She is the recipient of eight honorary doctorates and two fellowships, one in physics, the other in alcohol studies.

HENRY W. FOSTER, JR., is Professor Emeritus, Obstetrics and Gynecology and former Dean at Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee. In 1996, President Clinton appointed him Senior Advisor on Teen Pregnancy Reduction and Youth Issues, serving also as consultant to the Department of Health and Human Services and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A graduate of Morehouse College and the University of Arkansas as well as a member of the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Foster pioneered what has become a model for regionalized perinatal health care systems throughout the country.

JAMES RAPHAEL GAVIN III (1945– ) is a senior scientific officer of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Dr. Gavin, who received a Ph.D. from Emory University and an M.D. from Duke University Medical School, has pioneered research in insulin-resistant diabetes and hormone action in diabetes mellitus. Dr. Gavin is a member of the board of trustees of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the board of the American Society of Law, Medicine, and Ethics. He was awarded the Banting Medal for Distinguished Service by the American Diabetes Association in 1994, and in 1995 the E.E. Just Award by the American Society for Cell Biology. In 1996 Dr. Gavin was elected a member of the Institute of Medicine.

EVELYN BOYD GRANVILLE (1924– ) is a graduate of Smith College and Yale University, where in 1949 she became the first black woman in the United States to receive a doctoral degree in mathematics. After several years with the National Bureau of Standards, Dr. Granville spent 12 years in private industry specializing in orbital computations, celestial mechanics, numerical analysis, and digital computer techniques in support of the Mercury Project (the first U.S. manned mission in space), and the Apollo Project. Dr. Granville subsequently joined the faculty of California State University, Los Angeles, teaching courses in computer programming and numerical analysis as well as coauthoring a college textbook for prospective elementary school teachers on the teaching of mathematics. Dr. Granville currently resides in East Texas, where she remains active in the field of education through visits to schools to encourage the study of mathematics and the presentation of workshops to strengthen the teaching of mathematics.

BEATRIX A. HAMBURG (1923– ) is a Visiting Scholar in the Department of Psychiatry of the Cornell University College of Medicine. She has had a long career in academic medicine. She is a former President of the William T. Grant Foundation, which supports research on the development of children, adolescents, and youth, and has served on the faculties of the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Stanford University School of Medicine. Dr. Hamburg received her A.B. from Vassar College and her M.D. from the Yale University School of Medicine. Dr. Hamburg is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Royal Society of Medicine, and a member of the Institute of Medicine. She has participated in many studies sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, the National Research Council, and other organizations. As a medical researcher, Dr. Hamburg is most noted for her studies of early adolescence, pioneering work on peer counseling, and studies of diabetic children and adolescents.

BERNARD A. HARRIS, JR. is a former astronaut who was the space shuttle payload commander on the first flight of the joint Russian-American Space Program and the first African-American to walk in space. Dr. Harris is Vice President and Chief Scientist at SPACEHAB, Inc., and holds several faculty appointments, including clinical professor in internal medicine at the University of Texas Medical Branch. He holds an M.D from the Texas Tech University School of Medicine, an M.M.S. from the University of Texas Medical Branch, and an M.B.A. from the University of Houston. Dr. Harris trained as a flight surgeon at the Aerospace School of Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base, is a fellow of the American College of Physicians, and has conducted research in the fields of musculoskeletal physiology, disuse osteoporosis, and space adaptation. Dr. Harris’ achievements have been recognized by the Morehouse School of Medicine, NASA, the American Astronautical Society, and many other organizations.

W. LINCOLN HAWKINS (1911–1992), a pioneer in chemical engineering and the uses of plastics, was a leader in discovering the factors limiting the life of plastics and in developing life-extending additives as a practical means for conservation of materials. His work led to the invention of the synergistic system of chemical stabilization used throughout the world in the manufacture of plastic cable sheath. Dr. Hawkins’ research was of significant importance in developing ways to recycle plastics. In 1975 he was elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering.

RUBY PURYEAR HEARN graduated from Skidmore College and then attended Yale University, where she received an M.S. and Ph.D. in biophysics. Dr. Hearn has spent most of her professional life on the staff of The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the largest health care philanthropy in the United States. In her current position as senior vice president, Dr. Hearn participates in strategic program planning and as the Foundation’s liaison within the non-profit community. Dr. Hearn has had major responsibility for oversight and development of initiatives in maternal, infant, and child health; AIDS; substance abuse; and minority medical education. Dr. Hearn is a fellow of the Yale Corporation and a member of the Institute of Medicine; the Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy of the National Academy of Sciences; and the Science Board of the Food and Drug Administration.

JOHN L.S. HOLLOMAN, JR., is a medical administrator. In Dr. Holloman’s extensive teaching and public health career, he has served as professor of public health and health administration at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, as a consultant to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and on the staff of the Subcommittee on Health of the House Committee on Ways and Means of the U.S. Congress. His posts have included the presidency of the New York City Health and Hospital Corporation and of the National Medical Association as well as the national chairmanship of the Medical Committee for Human Rights. Dr. Holloman is medical director of the W. F. Ryan Community Health Center in New York City.

DONALD R. HOPKINS (1941– ), a recognized authority on domestic and international health, is a leader in the global eradication of smallpox. He has chaired and served on numerous international committees on health research, immunization, and epidemiology. An educator of health professionals, Dr. Hopkins long has been associated with the Harvard School of Public Health and Morehouse School of Medicine. He received the Medal of Excellence from the Centers for Disease Control and was elected to the Institute of Medicine in 1987.

FREEMAN A. HRABOWSKI, III, has served as President of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County since May 1992. He joined the University in 1987, serving first as Vice Provost, then as Executive Vice President. Born in 1950 in Birmingham, Alabama, Dr. Hrabowski graduated at age 19 from Hampton Institute with highest honors in mathematics, and he received his M.A. (mathematics) and the Ph.D. (higher education administration/statistics) from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign at age 24. The research and publications of Dr. Hrabowski focus on science and math education, with a special emphasis on issues involving minority participation. He serves as a consultant to the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the National Academy of Sciences, as well as the U.S. Department of Education and several other institutions. His recent honors include induction into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

SHIRLEY A. JACKSON (1946– ), a theoretical physicist, became in 1973 the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After conducting research at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and at the European Center for Nuclear Research, Dr. Jackson joined AT&T Bell Laboratories, where her research work is concentrated on theoretical material sciences. She has made important contributions to several areas of physics and, for her work, was elected a fellow of the American Physical Society and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She served as chair of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission from 1995 to 1999, when she was appointed as President of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

MAE C. JEMISON, blasted into orbit aboard the space shuttle Endeavor on September 12, 1992 as the first woman of color to go into space. The flight was just one of a series of accomplishments for this dynamic woman, who is founder and president of two technology companies. In 1994, Dr. Jemison founded The Earth We Share (TEWS), an annual international science camp where students from around the world--ages 12 to 16--work together to solve current global dilemmas. She also serves as Bayer Corporation's national science literacy advocate, and is an A.D. White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University. Born in Decatur, Alabama and raised in Chicago, Dr. Jemison received a Bachelor of Science degree in Chemical Engineering and fulfilled the requirements for an A.B. in African and Afro-American studies. She earned her M.D. at Cornell University.

HOWARD S. JONES, JR., retired engineer and scientist, was Chief of the Microwave Research, Harry Diamond Laboratories, U.S. Department of the Army. Dr. Jones designed and developed state-of-the-art microwave antennas, electronic components and devices (waveguide, coaxial and stripline) for use in communication systems. He has advised electronic and radar systems analyst and designers on matters relating to antennas and microwave system hardware; and suggested unique ideas and design techniques for proposed systems that were cost effective, and satisfied or enhanced overall electrical performance. He is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Washington Academy of Science. He has served as a consultant and advisor on minority issues in science and engineering to defense agencies, NASA, the Department of Education, the White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Minority Institutions, the National Science Foundation and the National Research Council. He currently holds 31 U.S. patents (inventor/co-inventor) and is the author of more than 40 publications.

PERCY L. JULIAN (1899–1975) was a research chemist whose trail-blazing research in uses for soybeans resulted in the development of a multiplicity of new products, the most important of which are low-cost drugs and hormones. He devised an inexpensive cortisone, used in the treatment of arthritis, from soybean sterols. His research led to the manufacture in quantity of the hormones testosterone and progesterone. Among his many "firsts" in the field of steroids was his synthesis of the drug physostigmine, used to treat glaucoma. Dr. Julian was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

ERNEST E. JUST (1883–1941) was a marine biologist. In 1909 Dr. Just began his research on the embryological resources of marine animals at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. His study of the process of fertilization in marine invertebrates and of the fundamental role of the cell surface in the development of organisms made him a leading authority on marine biology. A professor of zoology, Dr. Just wrote extensively in his field. Two outstanding works are Basic Methods for Experiments on Eggs of Marine Animals and The Biology of the Cell Surface, both published in 1939.

RISA LAVIZZO-MOUREY is the President and Chief Executive Officer of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Prior to coming to the Foundation, she was the Sylvan Eisman Professor of Medicine and Health Care Systems at the University of Pennsylvania, as well as Director of the Institute on Aging, Chief of the Division of Geriatric Medicine, and Associate Chief of Staff for Geriatrics and Extended Care for the Philadelphia Veterans Administration Medical Center. Dr. Lavizzo-Mourey earned her medical degree at Harvard Medical School, followed by a Masters in Business Administration at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. After completing her residency in internal medicine at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, she was a Robert Wood Johnson Clinical Scholar at the University of Pennsylvania, where she also received her geriatrics training.

LaSALLE D. LEFFALL, JR. (1930– ), is professor and chairman of the Department of Surgery at Howard University. A noted surgeon and oncologist, he has served as president of several national organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the Society of Surgical Oncology, and the Society of Surgical Chairmen. His other positions of national prominence include membership on the National Cancer Advisory Board and the American Board of Surgery. In 1983 Dr. Leffall became secretary of the American College of Surgeons. Among his numerous honors are the Presidential Award from the D.C. Chapter, American College of Surgeons; the James Ewing Medal of the Society of Surgical Oncology; the Charles R. Drew Medal, Drew Postgraduate Medical School; and four honorary degrees. In 1973, Dr. Leffall was elected to membership in the Institute of Medicine.

AUDREY FORBES MANLEY retired as Spelman College’s first alumna president after a long career in private and public service. Manley received a BA from Spelman, an M.D. from Meharry Medical College, a Masters in Public Health from Johns Hopkins University, and completed her training in pediatrics at Cook County Children’s Hospital. Manley has served on the faculties of Howard University, Emory University, University of Chicago, and the University of California. In 1976, she joined the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) and was later appointed as the first African American woman Principle Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health with oversight of eight agencies including the Centers for Disease Control, the National Institutes of Health, and the Food and Drug Administration. While at USPHS, Manley also directed the sickle cell anemia and other genetic disease programs. She went on to serve as Deputy U.S. Surgeon General and later as acting U.S. Surgeon General before becoming president of Spelman College. Manley was elected to the Institute of Medicine in 1977.

CORA BAGLEY MARRETT (1942– ) is a professor of sociology at the University of Wisconsin, where she has held tenure since 1974. Her masters and Ph.D. degrees were earned at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. From 1992 to 1996 she was assistant director for social, behavioral, and economic sciences at the National Science Foundation. She was also appointed to the Board of Governors of the Argonne National Laboratory to serve from 1996 to 1998 and is a member of a peer-review oversight group for the National Institutes of Health serving from 1996 to 1998.

SAMUEL P. MASSIE (1919– ) is professor of chemistry (emeritus) at the U.S. Naval Academy where he served on the faculty from 1966 to 1994. In 1994 the U.S. Department of Energy joined AIME, a coalition of Fortune 100 companies, in establishing a Samuel P. Massie Chair of Excellence in Environmental Sciences at each of the ten historically black college and university engineering schools. As widely recognized for his efforts to encourage young people in the sciences as for his scientific achievement, in March 1996 the American Chemical Society awarded him the Dreyfuss Award for his work in developing future careers in chemistry. His 1954 Chemical Reviews article, "The Chemistry of Phenothiazine," is considered a classic in the field. Dr. Massie is currently vice president of Bingwa Software Company, which develops curricula using multicultural models.

GARRETT AUGUSTUS MORGAN, Sr. (1877–1963) was the son of former slaves and devoted his life to creating items that made the lives of common people safer and more convenient. Firefighters in many cities in the early 1900s wore the safety helmet and gas mask that Mr. Morgan invented and for which he was awarded a gold medal at the Second International Exposition of Safety and Sanitation in New York in 1914. The gas mask Morgan invented in 1912 (patent no. 1,113,675) was also used during World War I to protect soldiers from chlorine gas. In 1916, Mr. Morgan made national news for using his gas mask to rescue several men trapped by a gas explosion in a tunnel being constructed under Lake Erie. Mr. Morgan was honored with two gold medals for his heroic efforts. His automated traffic signal (patent no. 1,475,024 ) featured a third position that halted traffic in all directions between Stop and Go. These signals were the basis for modern traffic signal systems and remained in use until they were replaced with the light signal devices used today.

SAMUEL M. NABRIT (1905– ) is a biologist with a long and distinguished career in science education. Dr. Nabrit currently directs the National Fellowships Fund of the Council of Southern Universities, which supports approximately 560 African Americans earning doctoral degrees that will lead to careers in higher education. As an educator, Dr. Nabrit served Atlanta University for 23 years as a professor of biology and dean, and he was the second president of Texas Southern University in Houston. Dr. Nabrit has also served as president of the National Institute of Science (1945) and as a member of the National Science Board (1956) and the Atomic Energy Commission (1966). Dr. Nabrit is a founding member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine.

VIVIAN W. PINN is the first full-time Director of the Office of Research on Women’s Health at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an appointment she has held since 1991. In 1994, she was also named Associate Director for Research on Women’s Health (NIH). She came to the NIH from Howard University College of Medicine where she had been Professor and Chair of the Department of Pathology since 1982. In this position, she became the third woman to chair an academic department of Pathology in the U.S. She had previously held appointments at Tufts University and Harvard Medical School. She earned her B.A. from Wellesley College and received her M.D. from the University of Virginia School of Medicine. She also served as the 88th President of the National Medical Association (and second woman president) during 1989-1990.

DAVID SATCHER served as the 16th Surgeon General of the United States from 1998 to 2002, and as Assistant Secretary for Health from 1998 to January 2001, the second person in history to serve in both capacities simultaneously. During his tenure, he released major reports on mental health, suicide prevention, oral health, smoking, and youth violence, and he championed efforts to eliminate racial and ethnic disparities in health. From 1993 to 1998, he was Director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Administrator for the Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. From 1982 to 1993, he was President of Meharry Medical College in Nashville. He is a graduate of Morehouse College and received his M.D. and Ph.D. from Case Western Reserve University.

HERBERT C. SCURLOCK (1875–1952) was a biochemist who pioneered the application of radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and the use of x-ray to diagnose dental problems. He was a professor of physiological chemistry. Dr. Scurlock’s Textbook on Quantitative Chemical Analysis, published in 1915, is available as a reference at the Library of Congress.

JOHN B. SLAUGHTER (1934– ), a computer scientist, is president of Occidental College in Los Angeles, California. He has served as chancellor of the University of Maryland and as director of the National Science Foundation. Dr. Slaughter is best known for his work on the development of computer algorithms for system optimization and discrete signal processing, with emphasis on application to ocean and environmental system problems. He is the recipient of 21 honorary degrees, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association of Science, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He was the first person to be honored as the Black Engineer of the Year. He was elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering in 1982.

MITCHELL W. SPELLMAN (1919– ) is director of International Exchange Programs at Harvard Medical International and dean (emeritus) for International Projects, dean (emeritus) for Medical Services, and professor of surgery (emeritus) at Harvard Medical School. He has served as dean and executive dean of the Charles R. Drew Postgraduate Medical School and as professor of surgery and assistant dean at the University of California at Los Angeles School of Medicine. He has received honorary doctoral degrees from three universities and numerous awards, including the Dillard University Distinguished Alumnus Award, the William A. Sinkler Award of the National Medical Association, and a creative award from the Charles R. Drew Medical School Foundation. A member of the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Spellman has chaired IOM’s Program Committee and served as a member of the Governing Council.

LOUIS W. SULLIVAN (1933– ) is a medical researcher, educator, and adviser to the federal government. From 1989 to 1992 he served as secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. He was founding dean and director of the medical education program at Morehouse College and first dean of the Morehouse School of Medicine. Dr. Sullivan has served as director of hematology, the field of his major research work, at Boston University City Hospital and was project director of the Boston Sickle Cell Center. He has received numerous honors and awards and has been recognized with a mastership in the American College of Physicians. He has been a member of the Institute of Medicine since 1975.

VIVIEN THOMAS (1910–1985) graduated with honors from Pearl High School but was unable to complete his medical education after his savings were lost in the Great Depression. He joined Vanderbilt University’s medical school as a surgical assistant, working for Dr. Alfred Blalock. In 1941, Thomas moved with Blalock to Johns Hopkins University. While working with Blalock on high-blood pressure, traumatic shock, and cardiac research, Thomas collaborated with Blalock and others in the invention of several surgical devices and techniques. One invention, a spring device, illustrated that shock was linked to a loss of fluid and blood volume. Thomas collaborated with Blalock and Dr. Helen Taussig to create a technique that delivered more oxygen to the blood and relieved constriction caused by a heart defect. The technique, anastomosis of the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery, was used in many Tetralogy of Fallot (blue-baby syndrome) operations with great success. Thomas also performed many pre- and post-operation procedures and advised during surgeries. Later, as Supervisor of the Johns Hopkins Surgical Research Laboratories, he taught a generation of surgeons and laboratory technicians. After receiving an honorary doctorate, Thomas was appointed to the medical school faculty.

REED V. TUCKSON (1951– ) has dedicated his career to improving the health and well-being of residents of urban communities, particularly minorities and children. Dr. Tuckson is currently the group vice president for professional standards at the American Medical Association. He is also the immediate past president of the Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, one of only four historically black medical schools west of the Mississippi. Dr. Tuckson has also served as a senior vice president of the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation and as the commissioner of public health of the District of Columbia. Dr. Tuckson is a member of the Institute of Medicine and has served on advisory committees and boards associated with the Institute of Medicine, the National Black Leadership Institute on Cancer, and other organizations. Awards received by Dr. Tuckson include the Gene Frey award for community service from the Whitman-Walker Clinic in Washington, D.C.

CHARLES HENRY TURNER (1867–1923) was a biologist, neurologist, psychologist, and chemist who made an international reputation as a researcher in animal behavior, concentrating on bees and ants. In 1907 Dr. Turner was a delegate to the Seventh International Zoological Congress and in 1912 he became one of the few African Americans elected to membership in the Academy of Sciences of St. Louis. Dr. Turner served on the faculty of the University of Cincinnati and was head of the science department at Clark University, Atlanta, Georgia.

WARREN M. WASHINGTON (1936– ) is senior scientist and a section head at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, where he served as director of the Climate and Global Dynamics Division from 1987 to 1995. He has been associated with the center since 1963. A meteorologist, he specializes in computer modeling of the earth’s climate. His book, An Introduction to Three-Dimensional Climate Modeling (with Claire Parkinson), is a standard reference in the field. A member of the National Science Board (1995–2000), he also served on the President’s National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere and is active on committees of the National Research Council. He is president of the Black Environmental Science Trust, a nonprofit effort to increase the numbers of African Americans in the environmental sciences.

JACK E. WHITE (1921–1988), who was director of the Howard University Cancer Research Center and chairman of the Department of Oncology at Howard University’s College of Medicine, made outstanding contributions to cancer research. He was a recipient of an award from the American Cancer Society for Outstanding Service to the Cause of Cancer Control. Dr. White was a member of the Institute of Medicine and the American Association for Cancer Research.

DANIEL HALE WILLIAMS (1858–1931) was the first person in the world to operate successfully on the human heart. He performed that feat in 1893 at Provident Hospital in Chicago and went on to perform other history-making operations. In 1891 he founded Provident Hospital, first hospital and training school for African American nurses and interns in the United States. Appointed by President Grover Cleveland to head Freedman’s Hospital in Washington, D.C., Dr. Williams established a nursing school there for African Americans. His papers were printed in their entirety in the Annals of Surgery and in abridged forms in the Chicago Medical Recorder and the Illinois Medical Journal.

DONALD E. WILSON became Dean of the University of Maryland School of Medicine in September 1991. In May 1999, he was named Vice President for Medical Affairs of the University of Maryland, Baltimore. At the State University of New York Health Science Center in Brooklyn he was professor and chairman of the Department of Medicine, and Physician-in-Chief at the University Hospital. He completed his undergraduate education at Harvard and received his medical degree from Tufts University. He is a member of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies and is a co-founder of the Association for Academic Minority Physicians, established in 1986. He is also a Master of the American College of Physicians; an honor bestowed on less than 0.4 percent of its members. He is chairman of the Maryland Health Care Commission and chair of the Association of American Medical Colleges.

WILLIAM JULIUS WILSON (1935– ), one of America’s leading sociologist, and a prolific author, was, in 1996, named the Malcolm Wiener Professor of Social Policy at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. At Harvard, Dr. Wilson will also serve on the Advisory Board of the W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African American Research. A former MacArthur Prize Fellow, Wilson served as the Lucy Flower Distinguished Professor of Sociology and Public Policy and former chair of the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago. He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. In 1991 Dr. Wilson became a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

CARTER G. WOODSON (1875–1950), known as the Father of Negro History, set for himself the goal of providing a scientific and historical account of people of African ancestry. Born to former slaves, he educated himself as a youth and went on to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1912. Among his highly influential writings are The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 and The Negro in Our History. Although his six-volume Encyclopedia Africana remained unfinished at the time of his death, his works are the foundation for countless other writers on African American history. One of Dr. Woodson’s achievements was the organization in 1926 of the first Negro History Week, which has evolved over the years to become what is currently known as African American History Month.

M. WHARTON YOUNG (1903–1986) was a neuroanatomist whose primary research was in the fields of baldness and deafness and who also did research on the anatomical basis of glaucoma. A Fulbright scholar, professor, and visiting lecturer, he served as chairman of the Ninth International Congress of Anatomists in Leningrad, Russia, in 1970. Dr. Young received the U.S. Department of Defense’s Pentagon Award for his research on the mechanics of blast injuries.

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