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INTERNALIZING/EXTERNALIZING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
HEAD START FAMILY AND CHILD EXPERIENCES SURVEY
Measure: Item-level information regarding internalizing, externalizing, and/or behavior problems
Source
The Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) is a national longitudinal study of the cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development of Head Start children; the characteristics, well-being, and accomplishments of their families; the observed quality of Head Start classrooms; and the characteristics, needs, and opinions of Head Start teachers and other program staff. The composition of scales based on items included in FACES that could be considered to reflect internalizing or externalizing behavior are not explicitly noted in currently available FACES documentation.
These constructs, though, appear to be tapped by items from various aspects of the FACES data collection, and it appears that behavior problems are a key construct underlying various FACES socio-emotional measures. The Classroom Conduct Problems Scale (FACES Research Team. Modified from Achenbach, 1992; FACES Research Team. Modified from Zill, 1976); the Social Skills Rating Scale (FACES Research Team. Modified from Elliott, 1988), the Your Child’s Behavior Scale (FACES Research Team. Head Start Quality Research Consortium. Modified from Achenbach, unpublished), the Assessment Behavior Scale (FACES Research Team), and the Teacher Feedback on Child’s School Performance and Behavior Scale (Zill, Loomis, & West, 1997) all have items that may tap behavior problems in some manner.
The FACES evaluation is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. The project team for FACES 1997 included Westat (prime contractor), Abt Associates, Ellsworth Associates, and the CDM group. The project team for FACES 2000 included Westat (prime contractor), Xtria (formerly Ellsworth Associates), and the CDM group. The project team for FACES 2003 included Westat (prime contractor), Xtria, and the CDM group.
Population Assessed
Each cohort of FACES employs a nationally representative sample of Head Start programs, centers, classrooms, children, and parents. Each sample is stratified by three variables: region of the country (northeast, Midwest, south, or west); urbanicity (urban versus rural); and percentage of minority families in the program (50 percent or more versus less than 50 percent). Data collection methods included child assessments, parent interviews, teacher reports, staff interviews, and classroom observations. Since its inception, FACES has involved an initial field-test sample and three nationally representative cohorts: FACES 1997, FACES 2000, and FACES 2003.
FACES 1997 field test. FACES was field tested in spring 1997 with 2,400 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds and their parents in a nationally stratified random sample of 40 Head Start programs. These children were followed up in spring 1998 when the children were in kindergarten.
FACES 1997. Data from the initial cohort for the main study of FACES 1997 was first collected in fall 1997 on 3,200 children and families from the same 40 Head Start programs employed in the field test. Data were collected on 1,200 3-year-olds new to Head Start; 1,280 4- and 5-year-olds new to Head Start; and 720 4- and 5-year-olds who were in the field-test study and returning for another year of Head Start. Data on these children were also collected in spring 1998 (spring of the Head Start year), spring 1999 (spring of the kindergarten year or spring of the Head Start year for those who were 3-years old in fall 1997), spring 2000 (spring of the first-grade year or spring of kindergarten for those who were 3-years old in fall 1997), and spring 2001 (spring of the first-grade year for those who were 3-years old in fall 1997).
FACES 1997 also included a validation substudy or embedded case study of 120 randomly selected families from the larger FACES sample. (NB. The embedded case study was not a part of FACES 2000 or FACES 2003). Data collection included in-person parent interviews, home and neighborhood observations, monthly telephone contacts for demographic updates, and community agency interviews regarding the amount and overall nature of collaboration between the agency and the Head Start program.
FACES 2000. A new national cohort of FACES was launched in fall 2000 (FACES 2000). Beginning in fall 2000, data from 2,800 children and families in a new nationally stratified random sample of 43 Head Start programs were collected to ascertain what progress was made in improving program performance. Data were collected in fall 2000, spring 2001, spring 2002 (when children were in kindergarten or in a second year of Head Start), and spring 2003 (when the children who were 3 years old in fall 2000 were in kindergarten).
FACES 2003. Data on a third national cohort (FACES 2003) were collected in fall 2003. Data from 2,700 children and families in a new nationally stratified random sample of 66 programs were collected in fall 2003 and will be collected in spring 2004, spring 2005 (when children are in kindergarten or in a second year of Head Start), and spring 2006 (when the children who were 3 years old in fall 2000 are in kindergarten).
Each cohort of FACES has approximately equal numbers of girls and boys and representative samples of white, African American, Hispanic, and children of other races.
Periodicity
The periodicity was not the same for all instruments involved in FACES. However, the periodicity was the same for the parent, teacher, and direct assessment instruments used to assess social skills and problem behavior (see the following tables for the data collection schedules for each cohort). Again, although the measures discussed here include items that could be seen as reflecting the internalizing and externalizing behavior constructs, the available documentation on FACES does not confirm the assignment of items to scales.
Field Test
| Spring 1997 | Fall 1997 | Spring 1998 | Spring 1999 | Spring 2000 | Spring 2001 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3,-, 4-, & 5-year-olds at end of Head Start | Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 2,400 | Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,428 |
FACES 1997
| Spring 1997 | Fall 1997 | Spring 1998 | Spring 1999 | Spring 2000 | Spring 2001 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3-year-olds | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,200 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,104 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 938 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; Kteacher questionnaire N = 798 | IN First Grade: Child assessment; parent interview; first-grade teacher questionnaire N = 678 | |
| 4-year-olds | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,280 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,178 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; Kteacher questionnaire N = 1001 | IN First Grade: Child assessment; parent interview; first-grade teacher questionnaire N = 678 | ||
| 5-year-olds | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 720 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 662 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; Kteacher questionnaire N = 563 | IN First Grade: Child assessment; parent interview; first-grade teacher questionnaire N = 678 |
FACES 2000
| Fall 2000 | Spring 2001 | Spring 2002 | Spring 2003 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3-year olds new to program | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,175 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,000 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 850 | IN K: Child assessment; parent interview; K teacher questionnaire N = 680 |
| 4- & 5- year olds new to program | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,650 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,402 | IN K: Child assessment; parent interview; K teacher questionnaire N = 1,122 |
FACES 2003
| Fall 2003 | Spring 2004 | Spring 2005 | Spring 2006 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3-year olds new to program | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,131 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 962 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 818 | IN K: Child assessment; parent interview; K teacher questionnaire N = 695 |
| 4- & 5- year olds new to program | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,590 | IN HS: Child assessment; parent interview; teacher reports N = 1,352 | IN K: Child assessment; parent interview; K teacher questionnaire N = 1,082 |
Teacher’s Child Report Forms
Teachers rated each of their sampled children’s behavior through instruments included in the Teacher’s Child Report forms (TCR). Respondents were either the child’s Head Start or elementary school teacher, depending on the child’s age and the assessment point (see above tables for details).
The Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS) measures various aspects of both positive and negative social functioning.
The Classroom Conduct Problems Scale is a 14-item scale that assesses child aggression, hyperactive, and/or depressed/withdrawn behavior over the past month.
In FACES 2003, a new measure was added to the teacher child-report form: Preschool Learning Behavior Scale (McDermott, Green, Francis, and Stott, 2000). Eighteen items were selected from the original scale. For each item, teachers are asked how true particular statements have been for the child over the previous month: “Not true,” “Somewhat or sometimes true,” or “Very true or often true.”
Parent Rated
Parents of sampled children rated their child’s behavior through instruments included in the parent interview. Respondents were the child’s biological or adoptive mother or father, legal guardian, or the person who is most responsible for the child’s care. Please refer to the above tables for details on the schedule of parent-interview data collection.
To rate their child’s behavior, parents responded to the Your Child’s Behavior Scale, a 19-item measure of both positive (e.g., prosocial behavior, approaches to learning) and negative constructs (e.g., aggression, hyperactive, depressed) over the previous month. Parents are presented with a series of statements about children’s social behavior (e.g., makes friends easily, is disobedient at home) and are asked to rate how well the statements describe their child’s usual behavior: “Very true,” “Somewhat true,” “Not true.”
It is noted that a version of the Your Child’s Behavior Scale used with parents of kindergarten children in the spring 1999 and 2000 differed slightly from the version used with parents of children who were in kindergarten in the spring of 1998.
The Your Child’s Behavior Scale has been modified for FACES 2003. The response options are the same (“Very true,” “Somewhat true,” “Not true”), but nine new items have been added from either the FACES project team or adapted from the Preschool Learning Behavior Scale (McDermott, Green, Francis, and Stott, 2000).
Other parent-rated behavior measures included the Teacher Feedback on Child’s School Performance Scale, which was administered to parents of kindergarteners and first graders only (spring 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001 parent interviews). This parent rating assesses parent knowledge of what goes on in child’s school and includes aspects of child behavior and discipline.
Observer Rated
The direct child assessors rated each assessed child on a wide array of behaviors, based on the child’s activities during the FACES cognitive assessment, including aspects of attention, body movement, and task persistence. These may address some content generally included in measures of externalizing and behavior problems and are thus included in the listing of items below. The assessment behavior ratings are completed at the end of each direct child assessment and were therefore administered on the same schedule as the direct child assessment (refer to above tables for schedule of administration).
Subscales/Components
The most recent available FACES report Head Start Faces 2002: A whole child perspective on program performance. The fourth progress report (Zill et al., 2003) cites a Cooperative Classroom Behavior Scale, a Total Problem Behaviors scale, as well as Hyperactive, Withdrawn, and Aggressive subscales (Zill et al., 2003), but it is unclear which items from the measures listed above create these scales. Item-level information is presented below.
Procedures for Administration
Reporter varied by measure and assessment point (see periodicity for further details). The respondent for the teacher ratings was either the child’s Head Start or kindergarten teacher (FACES 1997 also included teacher ratings by the first-grade teacher). The respondent for the parent ratings included birth or adoptive mothers or fathers, legal guardians, or some other primary caregiver. The parent interview includes a screening item that asks if the respondent is the person who is “most responsible for the child.” The respondent for the assessment behavior ratings is the direct child assessors. The above measures were included in interview batteries used during parent and teacher interviews, save the Assessment Battery Scale. The Assessment Behavior Scale was part of the cognitive assessment given by the test administrator. Parent interview is typically conducted at the Head Start center.
Psychometrics/Data Quality
Reliability of the instruments with FACES 1997 data is located in the following table. Details are available in Technical Report II for FACES 1997.
| Fall 1997 | Spring 1998 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scales | Number of Items | Number of Cases | Cronbach Alphas | Number of Items | Number of Cases | Cronback alphas |
| Teacher Ratings | ||||||
| Social Skills | 12 | 2,469 | .88 | 12 | 2,192 | .87 |
| Behavior Problems (Total) | 14 | 2,432 | .86 | 14 | 2,171 | .85 |
| Withdrawn | 7 | 2,486 | .77 | 7 | 2,201 | .76 |
| Aggressive | 4 | 2,500 | .83 | 4 | 2,201 | .84 |
| Hyperactive | 3 | 2,492 | .74 | 3 | 7 | .72 |
| Social Score Positive | 7 | 2411 | .57 | 7 | 2,155 | .61 |
| Parent Ratings | ||||||
| Behavior Problems Index (Total) | 12 | 2,408 | .72 | 12 | 2,142 | .73 |
| Behavior Problems (Aggressive) | 4 | 2,430 | .62 | 4 | 2,161 | .62 |
| Behavior Problems (Hyperactive) | 3 | 3,427 | .54 | 3 | 2,159 | .59 |
| Behavior Problems (Withdrawn) | 5 | 2,417 | .44 | 5 | 2,159 | .46 |
| Assessor Ratings | ||||||
| Assessment Behavior (English Assessments only) | 8 | 2,001 | .84 | 8 | 2003 | .82 |
Details of the analyses of the predictive validity of the parent and teacher behavior ratings instruments with FACES 1997 data is available in the fourth progress report for FACES. These analyses assessed the ability of the parent and teacher behavior ratings at the end of the Head Start year (spring 1998) to predict behavior and cognitive measures at the end of the kindergarten year (spring 1999).
As an indicator of school adjustment and social competence, the parent and teacher behavior ratings demonstrate ability to predict kindergarten behaviors that promote learning and those that impede learning. When the parent and teacher ratings were combined in a multiple regression, the model accounted for 18 percent of the variance in kindergarten teacher ratings of cooperative classroom behavior and 24 percent of the variance in kindergarten teacher ratings of total problem behavior.
Further, when the behavior ratings were combined in a multiple regression model, the model accounted for 8 percent of the variance in reading scale scores and 7 percent of the variance in general knowledge scale scores in kindergarten.
Scores from the FACES parent and teacher ratings of social behavior also both contribute to the prediction of teachers’ practical decision of whether a child repeats kindergarten or is promoted to first grade, accounting for 11 percent of the variance in the kindergarten teachers’ decision to promote the child to first grade.
Reliability of the instruments with FACES 2000 data is in the following table. Details can be found in the Fourth progress report for FACES.
| Fall 2000 | Spring 2001 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scales | Number of Items | Number of Cases | Cronbach Alphas | Number of Items | Number of Cases | Cronback alphas |
| Teacher Ratings | ||||||
| Social Skills | 12 | 2,522 | .88 | 12 | 2,254 | .88 |
| Behavior Problems (Total) | 14 | 2,522 | .86 | 14 | 2,254 | .86 |
| Withdrawn | 7 | 2,522 | .77 | 7 | 2,254 | .76 |
| Aggressive | 4 | 2,522 | .83 | 4 | 2,254 | .85 |
| Hyperactive | 3 | 2,522 | .72 | 3 | 2,254 | .72 |
| Parent Ratings | ||||||
| Behavior Problems Index (Total) | 12 | 2,485 | .71 | 12 | 2,290 | .75 |
| Behavior Problems (Aggressive) | 4 | 2,485 | .59 | 4 | 2,290 | .65 |
| Behavior Problems (Hyperactive) | 3 | 2,485 | .55 | 3 | 2,290 | .59 |
| Behavior Problems (Withdrawn) | 3 | 2,485 | .36 | 3 | 2,290 | .40 |
| Assessor Ratings | ||||||
| Assessment Behavior (English Assessments only) | 8 | 372 | .77 | 8 | 353 | .68 |
Predictive validity of the instrument with FACES 2000 data is not yet available.
Missing Data and Variability of Data
Response Rates are available for specific assessment points, but not at the item level.
Response rates for FACES 1997 are as follows.
Fall 1997: Of the 40 programs that participated, at least one classroom was observed in 180 out of 181 centers (n = 506), so classroom quality data were collected for 2,560 of the 3,006 children in the main study sample (85 percent). Assessment, parent, or teacher data were obtained on 2,657 of the 3,006 sample children (88 percent). Parent interviews were completed for 2,424of the 3,006 families selected for the sample (81 percent). Child assessments were completed for 2,451 out of 3,006 children (82 percent). Teacher report forms were obtained on 2,557 of the sample children (85 percent).
Spring 1998: Assessment, parent, or teacher data were obtained for 2,352 of the children (78 percent). A total of 480 classrooms were observed, so classroom quality data were obtained for 2,116 of the children (90 percent). Parent interviews were completed for 2,155 children (70 percent of the original sample). Spring child assessments were completed for 2,183 children (73 percent of the original sample). Teacher report forms were obtained for 2,234 children (74 percent of the original sample).
Spring 1999: Assessment, parent, or teacher data were obtained for 2,068 children (represented 81 percent of children targeted for follow-up, and 69 percent of original sample). Data were obtained on 1,067 kindergarten children (75 percent of those designated for follow-up) and 1,001 children in their second year of Head Start (88 percent of those designated for follow-up). Parent interviews were completed for 1,058 kindergarten children (75 percent) and 881 Head Start children (77 percent). Developmental assessments were completed for 989 kindergarten children (70 percent) and 965 Head Start children (84 percent). Teacher report forms were obtained for 786 kindergarten children (55 percent) and 851 Head Start children (74 percent).
Response rates for FACES 2000 are as follows:
- Response rates for Fall 2000
— 2,508 child assessments were completed out of 2,790 (90 percent).
— 2,488 parent interviews were completed out of 2,790 families selected for the sample (89 percent).
— Teacher report forms were obtained on 2,532 of the sample children (91 percent).
— Assessment, parent, and teacher data were obtained on 2,396 of the 2,790 sample children (86 percent).
— 278 classrooms were observed out of 286 in the sample for a completion rate of 97 percent. - Response rates for Spring 2001
— 2,232 child assessments were completed out of 2,288, representing 98 percent of the children who remained in the program and 80 percent of the original sample (2,790).
— 2,166 parent interviews were completed out of 2,288, representing 95 percent of the children who remained in the program and 78 percent of the original sample.
— Teacher report forms were obtained on 2,236 of the sample children, representing 98 percent of the children who remained in the program and 80 percent of the original sample.
— Assessment, parent, and teacher data were obtained on 2,115 of the 2,288 sample children who remained in the program (92 percent).
— A total of 275 classrooms were observed out of 284 in the sample (97 percent). - Response rates for Spring 2002 (Kindergartners Only)
— 831 child assessments were completed out of 979, representing 85 percent of the children who were in kindergarten in spring, 2002.
— 901 parent interviews were completed out of 979, representing 92 percent of the children who were in kindergarten in spring, 2002.
— Teacher report forms were obtained on 681 of the children, representing 70 percent of the children who were in kindergarten in spring, 2002.
— Assessment, parent, and teacher data were obtained on 624 of the 979 children
who were in kindergarten in spring, 2002 (64 percent).
Languages Available
Spanish and English.
Items Included
Children were rated by Head Start and elementary teachers on the Social Skills and Classroom Conduct Problems Scales (periodicity noted above). The Social Skills Rating Scale requires the respondent to note whether particular behaviors have occurred over the previous month, by responding as “Never,” “Sometimes,” or “Very Often.”
Social Skills Items:
- Follows the teacher’s directions
- Makes friends easily
- Does not get upset when teased by classmates
- Joins an ongoing activity or group without being told to
- Invites other to play in activities
- Waits his/her turn in games and other activities
- Helps in putting work materials or center property away
- Gives compliments to classmates
- Says nice things about himself/herself when appropriate
- Follows the rules when playing games with others
- Uses free time in acceptable ways
- Accepts classmates’ ideas for sharing and playing
Classroom Conduct Problems – each item is scored as Not True, Somewhat/Sometimes True, or Very/Often True
- Acts too young for his or her age
- Can’t concentrate, can’t pay attention for long
- Disobeys rules or requests
- Disrupts ongoing activities
- Hard to understand what he or she is saying
- Hits or fights with others
- Keeps to himself/herself; tends to withdraw
- Lacks confidence in learning new things or trying new activities
- Is nervous, high-strung, or tense
- Is very restless, fidgets all the time, can’t sit still
- Often seems sleepy or tired in class
- Has temper tantrums or hot temper
- Often seems unhappy, sad, or depressed
- Worries about things for a long time
- New section added to FACES 2003: Preschool Learning Behavior Scale (McDermott, Green, Francis, and Stott, 2000). Teachers are asked how true particular statements have been over the previous month: “Not true,” “Somewhat or sometimes true,” or “Very true or often true.”
- Pays attention to what you say
- Says tasks are too hard without making much effort to attempt it
- Is reluctant to tackle a new activity
- Sticks to an activity for as long as can be expected for a child of this age
- Adopts a don’t care attitude to success or failure
- Seems to take refuge in helplessness
- Follows peculiar and inflexible procedures in tackling activities
- Show little desire to please you
- Is unwilling to accept help even when an activity proves too difficult
- Acts without taking sufficient time to look at the problem or work out a solution
- Cooperates in group activities
- Bursts into tears when faced with a difficulty
- Has enterprising ideas which often don’t work out
- Is distracted too easily by what is going on in the room, or seeks distractions
- Cannot settle into an activity
- Gets aggressive or hostile when frustrated
- Is very hesitant in talking about his or her activity
- Shows little determination to complete an activity, gives up easily
- The Your Child’s Behavior Scale has been modified for FACES 2003. The response options are the same, but there are 9 new items (in bold face) from either the FACES project team or adapted from the Preschool Learning Behavior Scale (McDermott, Green, Francis, and Stott, 2000):
- Makes friends easily
- Waits her or his turn in games or other games or activities
- Can’t concentrate, can’t pay attention for long
- Is very restless, and fidgets a lot
- Is unhappy, sad, or depressed
- Comforts or helps other
- Follows the rules when playing games with others
- Worries about things for a long time
- Accepts friends’ ideas in sharing and playing
- Doesn’t get along with other kids
- Feels worthless or inferior
- Has difficulty making changes from one activity to another
- is nervous high-strung, or tense
- Helps you in putting away toys, clothes, or dishes
- Is disobedient at home
- Depends on adults for what to do, and does not take the initiative
- When faced with a difficulty, tends to burst into tears
- Is willing to be helped when needed
- Sticks to an activity for as long as can be expected for a child of his age
- Acts without taking enough time to look at the problem or work out a solution
- Doesn’t achieve anything constructive when in a mopey or sulky mood
Teacher Feedback on Child’s School Performance – each item is scored as Yes or No
- Has been doing really well in school
- Has not been learning up to his/her capabilities
- Doesn’t concentrate or pay attention for long
- Has been acting up in school or disrupting the class
- Has often seemed sad or unhappy in class
- Has been very restless, fidgets all the time, or doesn’t sit still
- Has been having trouble taking turns, sharing, or cooperating with other children
- Gets along with other children and works well in a group
- Is very enthusiastic and interested in a lot of things
- Lacks confidence in learning new things or taking part in new activities
- It’s hard to understand what he/she is saying
- Is often sleepy and tired in class
- Likes to speak out and express his/her ideas
- Is often bored in class
During the child cognitive assessments, test administrators were to assess aspects of the child’s behavior while the assessment was being done. Test administrators rated children on a 4-point Likert-type scale for aspects such as attention span, body movement, and ease of relationship.
- Task Persistence
- Persists with tasks
- Attempts tasks briefly
- Attempts tasks after much encouragement
- Refuses
- Attention Span
- focuses attention voluntarily
- attends with assessor direction
- some distraction with noise of movement of others
- easily distracted
- Body Movement
- sits quietly
- some squirming
- much movement
- out of seat; body constantly in motion
- Attention to directions
- listens carefully to entire directions
- attends only to brief directions
- plunges ahead after hearing just a portion
- plunges ahead immediately
- Comprehension of directions
- rapid comprehension of most directions, given age expectations
- understands after several repetitions
- partial comprehension of directions
- does not appear to comprehend most directions
- Verbalization
- many spontaneous comments
- occasional comments
- responds only when spoken to
- extremely reluctant to speak or inappropriate speech
- Ease of relationship
- immediately friendly
- friendly but reserved
- shy
- very reluctant and fearful
- Confidence
- very sure of self
- confident with things known; attempts new things with encouragement
- reluctant to try new and difficult things
- very uncertain; needs more encouragement
References and Source Documents
FACES Research Team. Head Start Quality Research Consortium. Modified from Achenbach, T. S. (unpublished). Discriminant analysis of Child Behavior Checklist for National Center of Health Statistics, 1996. Burlington, VT: Center for Children, Youth, and Families, Universities of Vermont.
FACES Research Team. Modified from Achenbach, T. M. (1992). Teacher/Caregiver Report Form for ages 2–5. Burlington, VT: Center for Children, Youth, and Families, University of Vermont.
FACES Research Team. Modified from Elliott, S. N., Gresham, F.M., Freeman, R., &
McCloskey, G. (1988). Teacher and observer ratings of children’s social skills: Validation of the social skills rating scales. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 6(152–161).
FACES Research Team. Modified from Zill, N. (1976). Child Behavior Rating Scale for teachers (Personal Maturity Scale), National Survey of Children. New York: Foundation of Child Development.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2003, June). Head Start FACES (2000): A whole child perspective on program performance, fourth progress report. Washington, DC: Author.
Zill, N., Loomis, L. S., & West, J. (1997). The elementary school performance and adjustment of children who enter kindergarten late or repeat kindergarten: Findings from national surveys. NCES Statistical Analysis report 98-097. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
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