III.  The Lost Boys of Sudan

In 1983, civil war broke out between the northern Arabic-speaking government of Sudan and southern tribes seeking autonomy. Since then, nearly two million people have died and five million have been displaced. Among these are at least 20,000 children, mostly boys, between 7 and 17 years of age who were separated from their families. This extraordinary exodus has its origins in traditional forms of migration. After initiation into manhood, young adolescent boys in southern Sudan have generally been quite mobile. Organized into small groups of their peers, they would leave home for a period to look after cattle. Some would head for the towns or cities to go to school or to seek their fortune before eventually returning home. In addition, at times of stress, families all over Africa have sent their children elsewhere to find safety, food, work, and schooling.

After civil war broke out, this process escalated dramatically. Factions began to attack peaceful villages, kidnapping young males to use as front line troops in battle zones or to walk through minefields. Fearing they would be targeted as potential combatants, many boys left their villages for refugee camps in Ethiopia. Some traveled with friends or relatives, others slipped away on their own at night. Few had any idea of what lay ahead of them, believing that their journey would last only a few days. Continually under threat, they fled for their lives, losing their way in the wilderness. They lost everything en route to soldiers, swindlers, or bandits. Many fell victim to lethal diseases. Others were so weakened by hunger and lack of sleep that they could go no further and sat down by the roadside, prey for lions and other wild animals.

The survivors who reached refugee camps in Ethiopia began to lead relatively peaceful lives again. But this was not to last. Following the change of government in Ethiopia in May 1991, the Sudanese youths were forced to flee again. This time the journey occurred during heavy rains, and many perished crossing the swollen rivers or were hit by aerial bombardment. Hungry, frightened and weakened by sleeplessness and disease, they made their way to camps in Sudan, where they received help from the International Committee of the Red Cross. From there, they then traveled on foot to safety in northern Kenya. Since 1992, UNICEF has been able to reunite nearly 1,200 boys with their families. But thousands more have remained in the dusty, fly-ridden refugee camp at Kakuma, where they have had to scrape for food and struggle for education.

In 1999, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, working in collaboration with the Department of State, referred over 3,300 of these youth, called the Lost Boys of Sudan, to the U.S. for resettlement processing. Once the U.S. agreed to admit this group, UNHCR undertook formal identity and background checks. The U.S. then began formally processing the group for resettlement in the fall of 2001. ORR began to track the progress of this group beginning with the 2001 survey. This report continues a five-year longitudinal assessment of the Lost Boys assimilation into U.S. society.

Geographic Location of Lost Boys

The Lost Boys refugees have settled in eighteen States including: Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington. For FY 2003, the largest number of Lost Boys initially resettled in Texas (106), followed by Massachusetts (65), California (53), Pennsylvania (49), Washington (45), Utah (37), Arizona (33), New York (20), and Virginia (20).

Economic Adjustment

In 2003, ORR completed its 2nd annual survey of a random sample of Lost Boys selected from a population of at least 20,000 Sudanese children, mostly males between 7 and 17 years of age, who had been separated from their families and subsequently arrived in the U.S. between May 1, 2001 and April 30, 2002. The survey collected basic demographic information such as age, education, English language fluency, job training, labor force participation, work experience, and barriers to employment of each adult member of the household of the selected person. The survey also collected household income, housing, and welfare utilization data.

To evaluate the economic progress of this subset of refugees, ORR used several measures of employment effort frequently used by economists. The first group of measures relates to employment status in the week before the survey and includes the employment‑to‑population ratio (EPR), the labor force participation rate, and the unemployment rate. In addition, data on work experience over the past year and typical number of hours worked per week were analyzed, as well as reasons for not working. Data are also presented on the length of time from arrival in the U.S. to first employment and self-sufficiency. 

Employment Status

Table III-1 presents the employment rate (EPR)[1] in October 2003 for refugees 16 and over within the Lost Boys population. The survey found that the overall EPR for the Lost Boys in the 2003 sample was 86 percent (87 percent for males and 30 percent for females). This rate is much higher than the rate recorded for the non-Lost Boys refugee population (55 percent). The male cohort of the Lost Boys population (87 percent) far exceeded the non-Lost Boy refugee cohort (64 percent), but the female Lost Boy cohort (30 percent) fell 15 points below the overall female refugee cohort (45 percent). As a point of further reference, the employment rate for the non-refugee U.S. population was 62 percent in 2003, 69 percent for males and 56 percent for females. The overall employment rate in the 2003 survey was also much higher than the survey of the previous year for the same population (74 percent). 

Thus, the males in the survey exceeded their counterparts in the U.S. general population by more than 18 percentage points, while the females in the survey fell short of the U.S. female cohort by more than 25 points. This 57 point difference between the male and female Lost Boy cohorts clearly shows that the path to self-sufficiency has been much more difficult for the female members of the Lost Boys population. Notwithstanding the lower employment rate of the female cohort, the overall picture appears quite favorable, especially for a newly arrived population with few family members awaiting them in their designated communities, no work history other than herding cattle, and little in the way of transferable skills. As for the low employment rate of the female cohort, only a decade ago this employment rate was common for the entire five-year refugee population. The 1993 survey, for example, reported that refugees in the five-year population were employed at about half the rate of non-refugee U.S. population (33 percent versus 64 percent).

Table III-1 also contains data on labor force participation rate[2] for refugees 16 and over in the five-year population. This rate is closely related to the employment rate, except it includes individuals looking for work as well as those currently employed. In October 2003, the overall labor force participation for the Lost Boy population was extremely high (91 percent) (93 percent for males and 40 percent for females). This overall rate is 30 points higher than that of the five-year refugee population (61 percent) and 25 points above the non-refugee U.S. population (66 percent). The male cohort of the Lost Boys (93 percent) also far exceeded both the corresponding male refugee rate (69 percent) and the non-refugee male rate (73 percent). The female rate (40 percent) fell far short of both the corresponding rate of non-Lost Boy female refugees (52 percent) and the U.S. female rate (59 percent). As with the EPR, the labor force participation rate of refugees increases with time in the U.S. The labor force participation rate for the 2003 Lost Boys was 91 percent, as compared to 88 percent for the same group in the 2002 survey. As time passes, this population should yield a greater presence in the workforce if the present pattern is maintained.

The unemployment rate continues this pattern. The overall unemployment rate for the Lost Boys was 12 percent in this year's survey. This compares favorably with the previous survey (15 percent), but very unfavorably with the 2003 general refugee population (6 percent) and the U.S. rate (six percent). Perhaps the most noteworthy finding is the dramatic rise in the female Lost Boy unemployment rate, from 17 percent in the 2002 survey to 40 percent in the 2003 survey. Part of the large swings recorded for this group may be rooted in the extremely small numbers interviewed (only ten in 2003); nevertheless, it is clear that the overall pattern is that males are joining the work force at a far greater rate than other refugee males or the U.S. male population as a whole while the females in this cohort are making no progress at all.

Table III-2 shows that over 95 percent of the Lost Boys population has worked at some point since arrival in the U.S. Fifty-four percent in this year's survey claimed to have worked at least 50 weeks during the past year. The average number of weeks worked was almost 46 weeks. Last year, only 69 percent reported that they had worked at some point since arrival. Only 28 percent had worked as many as 50 weeks, and the average number of weeks worked was about 34. Noteworthy in Table III-3 is the very high percentage of female Lost Boys that have worked at some point since arrival (70 percent). This seems to suggest that retaining, rather than finding, employment may be their problem in gaining financial independence.

Reasons for Not Looking for Work

The survey also asked Lost Boys age 16 and over who were not employed why they were not looking for employment. Attending school accounted for the largest proportion (41 percent) with an associated median age of 18. Childcare/family responsibility accounted for another (11 percent) and poor health and limited English accounted for six percent.

Limited English as a reason for not looking for work has decreased by over 80 percentage points since the 2002 survey when 90 percent of the Lost Boys not in the work force declared limited English proficiency as the reason for unemployment. The Lost Boys seem to recognize the importance of education and English language training in their acclimation to U.S. society because the largest proportion of Lost Boys (41 percent) stated that attending school as a reason for not looking for employment. It is noteworthy that over 33 percent of the Lost Boys did not give a reason for not looking for employment.

Elapsed Time to First Job

How soon do Lost Boys find work after coming to the U.S.?  The 2003 survey indicates that of those who have worked at all since coming to the U.S. (about 95 percent of refugees 16 years old and over in that survey), 18 percent found work within one month of arrival, an additional 22 percent after two to three months, 12 percent within 4 to 6 months, while another 5 percent took 7 to 12 months and only two percent took more than a year (refer to figure 2). Thus, more than 50 percent found employment within 6 months of arrival, and more than 40 percent of refugees reported finding first employment within 3 months of arrival in the current survey. The economic conditions within the U.S. do not appear to have slowed down the ability of the Lost Boys group to find employment.

Figure 2.  Elapsed Time to First Job for Lost Boys who have ever worked.

Factors Affecting Employment

The average number of years of education for all arrivals was approximately ten (refer to Table III-4). It was reported in the 2003 survey that three percent of the Lost Boys had no formal education before coming to the U.S.; this is a significant departure from the response given the year before where 15 percent of the Lost Boys population reported having no formal education prior to coming to the U.S.  It is currently unclear why the respondents changed their responses. Over forty percent of the respondents indicated that they had a primary school education which is consistent with what was reported in the previous year. Respondents with a high school education made up less than 30 percent of the Lost Boys population.

The migratory nature and age of the Lost Boys group undoubtedly account for the lower levels of education in this population. 

Beginning in 1997, many of the Lost Boys were driven from their homes seeking refuge from the ongoing war. Since arriving in the U.S., the Lost Boys have attempted to improve their educational standing. The 2003 survey shows that more than 65 percent of the Lost Boys population are attending some type of school or university, 26 percent are attending high school, 27 percent are in an associate degree program, and 8 percent are in a bachelor's degree program. Some degree of caution is necessary when interpreting education statistics as these data are self-reported.

Less than two percent of Lost Boys in the 2003 survey reported speaking no English when they arrived in the U.S. (refer to Table III-4). But this was reduced to zero by the time of the survey interview, when all Lost Boys reported speaking English. At the time of arrival, 27 percent of the Lost Boys reported not speaking English well; similarly, 29 percent reported speaking English well or fluently upon arrival into the U.S. The later statistic could account for the high EPR for this population. By the time of the interview, only 11 percent of the Lost Boys still reported speaking little English while almost 80 percent report speaking English well or fluently. The ability to speak English is one of the most important factors influencing the economic self-sufficiency of refugees; the Lost Boys who came here have clearly worked hard at bettering their prospects through intensive language study (refer to Table III-5).

TABLE  III- 4 - Education and English Proficiency Characteristics of Lost Boys

Unsurprisingly, the survey found that the Lost Boys who spoke no English upon arrival continued to lag behind the other groups. Their employment rate was 33 percent, far below the overall employment rate of 86 percent. There was little difference, however, between those speaking English well or fluently upon arrival (82 percent) and those who claimed that they could not speak English well (86 percent).

Those who spoke English fluently by the time of the interview reported a very high employment rate (88 percent), but so did their counterparts who still could not speak English well (83 percent).

Historically, most refugees improve their English language proficiency over time, and those who do not are the least likely to be employed. During the past 12 months, 20 percent of all Lost Boys attended English Language Training (ELT) outside of high school (refer to Table III-6). For the same period, the proportion of refugees who have attended job-training classes lags far behind ELT (8 percent and 20 percent, respectively). About 19 percent of all survey respondents currently attend language instruction, either through high school curriculum or through ELT classes. In the 2002 survey, by contrast, 48 percent of the Lost Boys were attending some sort of language class at the time of the survey.

Medical Coverage

Overall, about 19 percent of adult refugees surveyed lacked medical coverage of any kind throughout the year preceding the survey (refer to Table III-9). Also, 46 percent of the Lost Boys received medical coverage through their employer and only five percent of the sample received medical coverage from Medicaid or RMA. By way of contrast, the 2002 survey indicated that 48 percent of the Lost Boys relied on Medicaid or Refugee Medical Assistance during the year while seven percent had no medical coverage in any of the past 12 months. Forty-five percent received their medical coverage through an employer.

Welfare Utilization

Table III-10 presents cash and non-cash welfare utilization data on the Lost Boys sample. Dependence on cash assistance has declined significantly from the previous sample. In the 2002 sample, about 37 percent of Lost Boys households received some sort of cash assistance. The proportion declined to 11 percent in the 2003 survey. No Lost Boy households received TANF in the last 12 months. This represents a reduction of 16 percentage points from the year before.  Approximately 8 percent of sampled households received RCA in 2003, down from 23 percent in the previous survey. No Lost Boys household members received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) in the past twelve months. General Assistance (also called General Relief or Home Relief in some States) is a form of cash assistance funded entirely with State or local funds. It generally provides limited assistance to single persons, childless couples, and families with children that are not eligible for TANF. The 2002 survey reported that about five percent of Lost Boys households received some form of GA during the previous twelve months; in the current survey, GA utilization remained at five percent.

Non-cash welfare utilization also declined between the two surveys. About 11 percent of Lost Boys households reported receiving food stamps in the previous 12 months. This represents a decline of three-quarters from the previous year when nearly 47 percent of Lost Boys households received food stamps.

Significant improvement in self-sufficiency was also recorded for medical coverage. The 2002 survey reported that 48 percent of Lost Boys received their medical coverage through RMA or Medicaid. The 2003 survey shows a dramatic improvement-fewer than five percent of Lost Boys relied on publicly funded programs in this year's survey. This represents a decline of almost 90 percent from the year before.

The 2003 survey also reported lower dependence on government programs for housing. Only 16 percent of Lost Boys reported receiving housing assistance in this year's sample compared with 35 percent utilization in the previous survey (refer to Table III-10).

Employment and Welfare Utilization Rates by State

 The 2003 survey also reported welfare utilization and employment rate by State of residence. Table III-11 shows the EPR and utilization rates for various types of welfare for twelve States, as well as the nation as a whole. Unlike Table III-10, which computes welfare utilization rates for entire households, Table III-11 presents data on utilization by individual refugees (including children).

TABLE III-10 Public Assistance Utilization of Lost Boys: 2003 Survey

In the five-year population of non-Lost Boys refugee households, the EPR was generally high where welfare utilization was low and vice-a-versa. In the Lost Boys sample, however, there was no distinct correlation between EPR and welfare dependency. The welfare utilization rates in States with the highest refugee employment rates-Texas (100 percent), Massachusetts (100 percent), Pennsylvania (100 percent), North Carolina (100 percent) and Utah (96 percent)-ranged from zero to 25 percent. Many States with lower employment rates) reported no welfare utilization. For example, Washington (77 percent) and Virginia (79 percent) had lower employment rates but also had a welfare utilization rate of zero.

The findings from ORR's 2003 survey indicate (as in the previous year) that the Lost Boys face significant problems upon arrival in the United States, especially the female members of this group. They have, however, made significant strides in achieving independence. Although many spoke at least some English upon arrival, they have enrolled in ELT in large numbers, and their gains in English language fluency have been substantial. Although many still do not speak English fluently, virtually none speak no English at all. Their cash assistance utilization, never high in their first year, has since dwindled by two-thirds. They have eagerly sought employment and the few that are currently not working are actively looking for employment. 

Technical Note: The Lost Boys of Sudan Survey, with interviews conducted by DB Consulting Group, Inc. in the fall of 2002 and 2003, is a subset of the Annual Survey of Refugees conducted by ORR since 1975. Although respondents from Sudan have traditionally been included into the Annual Survey of Refugees, this is the first time that a single population has been surveyed to track their adjustment to resettlement in the U.S.

In 2002, a random sample was selected from the ORR Refugee Data File of arrivals. ORR's contractor, DB Consulting Group, then contacted the family by a letter in English and a second letter in the refugee's native language. If the person sampled was a child, an adult living in the same household was interviewed. Interviews were conducted by telephone in the refugee's native language. The questionnaire and interview procedures used with this population were the same as the ones employed in the Annual Survey of Refugees.

For the 2003 survey, 105 of the 175 Lost Boys in the sample were contacted and interviewed. Of the 175 cases from the 2002 sample, 105 were contacted and interviewed, one was contacted and yielded a partial interview, 69 could not be traced in time to be interviewed, and none refused to be interviewed.