BIBLIOGRAPHY

Selected Readings - Related Library of Congress Materials - Resource Materials for Teachers

SELECTED READING

OFFICIAL SERIES

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert. 9 vols. to date. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955-.

Vol. I: Barthelemy, D., and J. T. Milik. Qumran Cave I. 1955.
Vol. II: Benoit, P., J. T. Milik, and R. de Vaux. Les Grottes de Murabba`at. 1961.
Vol. III: Baillet, M., J. T. Milik, and R. de Vaux. Les `Petites Grottes' de Qumran. 1962.
Vol. IV: Sanders, J. A. The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave II (IIQPs[superscript]a). 1965.
Vol. V: Allegro, J. M. Qumran Cave 4: I (4Q158-4Q186). 1968.
Vol. VI: De Vaux, R., and J. T. Milik. Qumran Grotte 4: II (Archeologie et 4Q128-4Q157). 1977.
Vol. VII: Baillet, M. Qumran Grotte 4: III (4Q482-4Q520). 1982.
Vol. VIII: Tov, E. The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever (8HevXIIgr) (The Seiyal Collection I). 1990.
Vol. IX: Skehan, P., E. Ulrich, and J. Sanderson, with a contribution by P. J. Parsons. Qumran Cave 4: IV. Palaeo- Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts. 1992.

TRANSCRIPTIONS, REPRODUCTIONS, AND RECONSTRUCTIONS

The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche: A Comprehensive Facsimile Edition of the Texts from the Judaean Desert.

Edited by E. Tov. Printed catalog by S. Reed. Israel Antiquities Authority. Leiden: E. J. Brill, forthcoming.

A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Prepared with an introduction and index by R. Eisenman and J. Robinson. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991. Introduction in English. Facsimiles primarily in Hebrew and Aramaic.

A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew and Aramaic Texts from Cave Four.

Reconstructed and edited by B. Wacholder and M. Abegg. 2 fascs. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991-92.

The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness.

Edited by Y. Yadin. Translated by B. and C. Rabin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962.

Scrolls from Qumran Cave I: The Great Isaiah Scroll, the Order of the Community, the Pesher to Habakkuk.

Photographs by J. Trever. Jerusalem: Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and the Shrine of the Book, 1972.

The Temple Scroll.

Edited by Y. Yadin. 3 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1977-83. Translation of Megilat-ha-mikdash. Contents: v. 1. Introduction -- v. 2. Text and commentary -- v. 3. Plates and text; supplementary plates (2 v.).

GENERAL SOURCES

Baumgarten, J. Studies in Qumran Law.

Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, vol. 24. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977.

Cross, F. The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Biblical Studies.

The Haskell Lectures, 1956-57. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958.

--------. "The Development of the Jewish Scripts."

In The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of William Foxwell Albright. Edited by G. Wright. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961.

The Damascus Document Reconsidered.

Edited by M. Broshi. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Shrine of the Book, 1992.

The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research.

Edited by D. Dimant and U. Rappaport. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992.

De Vaux, R. Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973. English translation from the French.

Fitzmyer, J. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and Tools for Study.

Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study, no. 20. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.

--------. Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls.

New York: Paulist Press, 1992.

Flusser, D. Judaism and the Origins of Christianity.

Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1988.

Golb, N. "The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective."

The American Scholar 58 (Spring 1989):177-207.

Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text.

Edited by F. Cross and S. Talmon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975.

Schechter, S. Documents of Jewish Sectaries.

1910. Reprint. Library of Biblical Studies. New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1970.

Schiffman, L. The Halakhah at Qumran.

Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, vol. 16. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975.

Scrolls from the Dead Sea: An Exhibition of Scrolls and Archeological Artifacts from the Collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority.

Edited by A. Sussman and R. Peled. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress in association with the Israel Antiquities Authority, 1993. Catalog issued in conjunction with an exhibition held at the Library of Congress, Apr. 29-Aug. 1, 1993.

Talmon, S. The World of Qumran from Within: Collected Studies.

Jerusalem: Magnes Press; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989.

Tov, E. "The Unpublished Qumran Texts from Caves 4 and 11."

Journal of Jewish Studies 43 (Spring 1992):101-36.

Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reader from the Biblical Archaeology Review.

Edited by H. Shanks. New York: Random House, 1992.

Vermes, G. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective. Rev. ed.

Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977.

--------. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 3rd ed.

London: Penguin, 1990.

Wieder, N. The Judean Scrolls and Karaism.

London: East and West Library, 1962.

Wilson, E. Israel and the Dead Sea Scrolls.

New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978.

Yadin, Y. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect.

New York: Random House, 1985.

-- Compiled by Michael W. Grunberger

INTRODUCTION:
RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS

These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress, May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.

PSALMS SCROLL

J. A. Sanders published his findings on the Psalms Scroll first in 1965, as the fourth volume of "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert," the official publication series. This is a later version published in the United States.

J. A. Sanders
The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (Ithaca, 1967)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (185)

THE FIRST HEBREW PRINTED BOOK OF THE BIBLE: THE PSALMS

Hand-written books of the Bible were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. This Psalter is the first book of the Bible printed in Hebrew. This edition of the Psalms includes the commentary of David Kimhi and was printed in 1477, probably in Bologna. The commentary on the Psalms was heavily censored by Church authorities. The owner of the book, however, inserted by hand each word that had been expunged.

Psalms (Bologna, 1477)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (190)

THE ALEPPO CODEX

Until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947, the Aleppo Codex, which dates to the tenth century C.E., was the oldest known Bible codex. This facsimile was published in 1976.

Aleppo Codex (Jerusalem, 1976)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (117)

THE COMPLUTENSIAN

This is the earliest of the great polyglot editions of the Bible and includes texts in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. Produced under the patronage of Cardinal Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517), it was believed to have cost 50,000 gold ducats. Psalm 145 is a hymn arranged according to the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. It is interesting to note that today's biblical text does not include a verse for the letter "nun," the fourteenth letter of the alphabet. The fragment of the Psalm Scroll displayed here does include a missing verse for this letter.

Psalms [Complutensian] (1514-1517)
Printed polyglot bible
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (177)

THE DEAD SEA LOOKING TOWARDS MOAB

In 1838-1839, Scottish artist David Roberts (1796-1864) traveled through the Near East, bringing home 300 sketches of monuments and landscapes that he encountered on his journey. His drawings were reproduced in six volumes between 1842-1849.

Shown here is his rendering of "The Dead Sea Looking Towards Moab." In the foreground--carved into the rocky cliff--is the monastery of St. Saba.

David Roberts
"Dead Sea Looking Towards Moab, April 4, 1839"
The Holy Land (London, 1842-1849)
Lithograph with hand-coloring
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (163)

VIEWS OF JERUSALEM

This map is the lower of two plates depicting Jerusalem. The Temple of Solomon, located at the top of the map, includes illustrations of the High Priest at the altar. The Ark of the Covenant is located in the Holy of Holies (the innermost chamber of the Temple), with God's spirit, the "Shekhinah," emanating from the ark and represented by the Tetragrammaton, the four- letter divine name.

Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg
"Jerusalem"
Civitates Orbis Terrarum (Cologne, 1612)
Printed book, hand-colored etching
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (168)

VIEWS OF THE HOLY LAND

This hand-colored map of the Holy Land (Terra Sancta) features an enlarged depiction of the Dead Sea. On the lower left of the map is a rendering of the story of Jonah and the whale.

Abraham Ortelius
"Terra Sancta"
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (London, 1606)
Printed book
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (167)

VIEWS OF THE HOLY LAND

Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 C.E.) was the preeminent geographer of the ancient world. Shown here is a hand-colored map of the Holy Land from a 1482 Ptolemaic atlas. The territories of the twelve tribes of Israel are clearly marked throughout.

Claudius Ptolemaeus
Cosmographia (Ulm, 1486)
Printed book, hand-colored woodcut
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (166)

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE HOLY LAND

This aerial perspective of the Holy Land reflects a nineteenth- century trend in American mapmaking which featured "bird's-eye" views prepared for towns and cities across the nation. Published in New York, the rendering of the Holy Land indicates the intense American interest in this part of the world.

A. J. Marks
Bird's Eye View of the Holy Land (New York, 1879)
Chromolithograph, sectional map in 6 parts
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (169)

THE QUMRAN COMMUNITY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS

These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress, May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.

MODERN PHYLACTERY CASES

Though larger, these phylacteries are modern versions of the Qumran phylacteries. Traditionally worn on the forehead and the left arm during weekday prayers, the head phylactery displayed here has been opened to show the compartments for the slips inscribed with biblical verses.

Phylacteries (Tefillin)
Leather
Early twentieth century
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (182)

PHYLACTERY TEXT

In this monograph on the phylacteries, noted archaeologist Yigael Yadin provided a detailed description of the methods used to fold the slips so that they could be inserted into their tiny compartments.

Yigael Yadin
Tefillin from Qumran (Jerusalem, 1969)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (151)

THE PUBLICATION CONTROVERSY

In December 1991, a two-volume edition of scroll photographs was published. This facsimile edition was issued by the Biblical Archaeology Society, an American group headed by Hershel Shanks. It is opened here to a transcription and reconstruction of Some Torah Precepts. The publication of this reconstruction and transcription is currently the subject of lawsuit in Israel and the United States between the reconstructor of the text, Dr. Qimron and the publisher, Hershel Shanks. In March 1993, an Israeli court found in favor of Mr. Quimron.

Robert Eisenman and James Robinson, eds.
A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 1 (Washington, 1991)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (130)

THE ORIGIN OF THE SCROLLS AND THE QUMRAN SITE

In "The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective," Professor Norman Golb of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago presents evidence to support his view that the Dead Sea Scrolls do not derive from a sect that copied or wrote the manuscripts that were found in the nearby caves. According to Professor Golb, there is no persuasive evidence to support the commonly held view that a sect inhabited the Qumran plateau. Dr. Golb states that the scrolls are from Jerusalem libraries, encompassing a wide variety of non-sectarian as well as sectarian materials. In his view, the preponderance of archaeological evidence supports the existence of a Roman fortress at Qumran rather than a sectarian community.

Norman Golb
"The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective"
The American Scholar (Spring, 1989)
Bound serial
General Collections, Library of Congress (135)

THE SECTARIAN CALENDAR

Displayed here, from Hebrew University Professor S. Talmon's "The World of Qumran from Within," is a table outlining the sectarian solar calendar, which, unlike the lunar calendar of non-sectarian Judaism, is remarkable for its regularity. The first day of the New Year always falls on Wednesday. This meant that the Day of Atonement always fell on a Friday; Tabernacles on a Wednesday; Passover on a Wednesday; and the Feast of Weeks on a Sunday.

Shemaryahu Talmon
The World of Qumran from Within (Jerusalem, 1989)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (144)

THE COMMUNITY RULE

A complete version of the Community Rule was uncovered in Cave 1. It was photographed by J. Trever, an archaeologist at the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. This manuscript is one of three that were exhibited at the Library of Congress in 1949. The fragment of the Community Rule on display here is from Cave 4.

John Trever
Scrolls from Qumran Cave I (Jerusalem, 1972)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (126)

PLINY ON THE ESSENES

Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, described the Essenes in his encyclopedic work, "Natural History" (Chapter V:17,4). In locating the Essenes just west of the Dead Sea--but north of Ein Gedi--Pliny provides a key support for the hypothesis which advances the Essenes as the inhabitants of the Qumran plateau:

To the west (of the Dead Sea) the Essenes have put the necessary distance between themselves and the insalubrious shore .... Below the Essenes was the town of Engada (Engedi). [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]

Pliny the Elder
Naturalis historiae (Parma, 1481)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (111)

PLINY ON THE ESSENES

In characterizing the Essenes, Pliny describes a people similar to the sect whose regulations are outlined in the Community Rule:

They are a people unique . . . and admirable beyond all others in the whole world, without women and renouncing love entirely, without money . . . . [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]

Pliy the Elder
Naturalis historiae (Venice, 1472) Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (113)

SADDUCEES AND PHARISEES

The Mishnah and Talmud record various disagreements between the Sadducees, the priestly and aristocratic party, and the Pharisees, which included the lay circles. The following disagreement on the laws of purity is reported in tractate "Tohorot:"

The Sadducees say: We complain against you Pharisees that you declare an uninterrupted flow of a liquid to be clean. The Pharisees say: we complain against you Sadducees that you declare a stream of water that flows from a burial ground to be clean? (Mishnah Yada`im. 8)

Talmud
Tohorot (Venice, 1528)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (118)

FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS

The ancient historian Flavius Josephus (ca. 38 C.E.- 100 C.E.) is the primary historical source for the late Second Temple period. In 66 C.E., at the outbreak of the Jewish rebellion against Rome, Josephus was appointed military commander of Galilee. Defeated, he betrayed colleagues who had chosen group suicide and surrendered to the enemy. His life spared, he was taken to Rome and became a pensioner of Vespasian, the Roman general who later became emperor.

In 75 C.E., at age thirty-eight, he wrote "The Jewish War," which he claimed was "the greatest of all [wars], not only that have been in our times, but, in a manner of those that ever were heard of." This volume is opened to the beginning of Book Four of "The Jewish War," in which Josephus describes the Jewish rebellion, and an illumination of the battle between the Roman and Judean forces. After Rome's victory, scholars believe that the Qumran settlement ceased to exist.

Flavius Josephus
L`histoire . . . (Paris, 1530)
Printed book
Rosenwald Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (110)

JOSEPHUS ON THE ESSENES

From his "Antiquities of the Jews" 18, 18-22:

The Essenes like to teach that in all things one should rely on God. They also declare that souls are immortal . . . . They put their property in a common stock, and the rich man enjoys no more of his fortune than does the man with absolutely nothing. And there are more than 4000 men who behave in this way. In addition, they take no wives and acquire no slaves; in fact, they consider slavery an injustice . . . . [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]

Flavius Josephus
De antiquitate Judaica (Augsburg, 1470)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (104)

WHY HEROD HONORED THE ESSENES

From "Antiquities of the Jews" 15, 371-9

Among those spared from being forced [to take a loyalty oath to Herod] were those we call Essenes . . . . It is worth saying what caused [Herod] to honor the Essenes. There was a certain Essene whose name was Manaemus . . . . This man once saw Herod when the latter, still a boy, was on the way to his teacher's house, and addressed him as 'King of the Jews.' Herod thought he was ignorant or joking and reminded him that he was a private citizen. But Manaemus smiled gently and tapped him with his hand on the rump, saying: 'But indeed you will be king and you will rule happily, for you have been found worthy by God.' [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]

Flavius Josephus
Ioudaikes. . . (Basel, 1544)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (106)

JOSEPHUS ON THE ESSENES

From "The Jewish War" 2, 119-120

There exists among Jews three schools of philosophy: the Pharisees belong to the first, the Sadducees to the second, and to the third belong men, who have a reputation for cultivating a particularly saintly life, called Essenes . . . . The Essenes renounce pleasure as evil, and regard continence and resistance to the passions as a virtue. They disdain marriage for themselves, but adopt children of others at a tender age in order to instruct them . . . . [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]

Note the Hebrew manuscript bound in the inside covers of the volume. It is a late fourteenth or early fifteenth century copy of a liturgical poem recited on the Feast of Weeks.

Flavius Josephus
De bello Judaico (Verona, 1480) Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (107)

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE

Surrounded by explanatory text, the engraving at the center depicts the First Temple. The High Priest at the altar and the Ark of the Covenant are illustrated at the foot of the engraving.

This frontispiece from an edition of the works of Flavius Josephus was in the collection of Thomas Jefferson, acquired by the Library of Congress in 1815.

Flavius Josephus
"Antiquities of the Jews"
Frontispiece from The Genuine Works . . . (London, 1737)
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (105)

VIEWS OF JERUSALEM

At the opening of Book One of "The Jewish War" of this first American edition of Flavius Josephus is an engraving of Jerusalem during the Second Temple. The Temple is located at the center of the lower half of the illustration and the Roman legions are shown encamped outside the walls.

Flavius Josephus
"Jerusalem"
The Works of Flavius Josephus (New York, 1792)
Printed book, engraving
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (108)

PANORAMIC VIEW OF JERUSALEM

Displayed here is an early panoramic photograph of Jerusalem looking west from the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem's wall and its distinctive skyline.

W. Hammerschmidt
[A View From the Mount of Olives], c. 1860
Albumen print
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (165)

THE QUMRAN LIBRARY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS

These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress, May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.

BOOK OF ENOCH

The Book of Enoch is a pseudepigraphal work (a work that claims to be by a biblical character). The Book of Enoch was not included in either the Hebrew or most Christian biblical canons, but could have been considered a sacred text by the sectarians. The original Aramaic version was lost until the Dead Sea fragments were discovered.

Józef T. Milik, ed.
The Books of Enoch (Oxford, 1976)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (150)

TORAH SCROLL

This eighteenth-century Torah scroll was written in North Africa. It is rolled to Leviticus, 23:22-29, which corresponds to the Leviticus Scroll from Cave 4 displayed here (object no. 4). Note the "wandering peh" (a Hebrew letter) which occurs frequently in the displayed column.

Torah Scroll (North Africa, c. 18th century)
Parchment
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (116)

LEVITICUS SCROLL

The large paleo-Hebrew fragment of Leviticus on display here was published in 1985 by D.N. Freedman and K.A. Mathews. The authors transliterated the paleo-Hebrew script into modern Hebrew characters.

D. N. Freedman and K. A. Mathews
The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (11 Qpaleo Lev)
(Winona Lake, Indiana, 1985)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (184)

FIRST MACCABEES

Displayed here is the opening page of the First Book of Maccabees from the Walton Polyglot Bible. First Maccabees describes the rule of the early Hasmonean princes who freed Judea from the yoke of the Syrian rulers in 168 B.C.E. It is included in the Roman Catholic scriptural canon, but was removed from the Protestant canon after the Reformation and relegated to the Apocrypha.

First Maccabees
[Walton's Polyglot] (London, 1655-1657)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (176)

SAMARITAN BIBLE

The modern descendant of the paleo-Hebrew script of the Leviticus Scroll (object no. 4) is the Samaritan script. This biblical manuscript, written in the Samaritan script, is opened to Leviticus 23:22-29. Note the similarity between the paleo-Hebrew script of the Leviticus Scroll written in the late second century B.C.E. and this Samaritan manuscript from the late nineteenth century.

Leviticus
[Samaritan Pentateuch] (1880)
Manuscript book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (175)

THE HOSEA COMMENTARY

In 1979, M. Horgan completed a work on all the "pesharim," or commentaries, which included an extensive treatment of the Hosea Commentary fragments. The "pesharim" interpreted the biblical text in light of events of the late Second Temple Period--seeing within the text prophesies and messages relevant to the community's beliefs and practices.

Maurya Horgan
Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books (Washington, 1979)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (154)

THE HOSEA COMMENTARY

The Hosea Commentary Scroll was first published by J. Allegro as the fifth volume of the official publication series, "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert."

John Marco Allegro
Qumran Cave 4. DJD V (Oxford, 1968)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (153)

SONGS OF THE SABBATH SACRIFICE

The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, also known as the Angelic Liturgy, is a liturgical work composed of 13 sections, one for each of the first thirteen Sabbaths of the year. This is the definitive translation and analysis of these distinctive hymns.

Carol Newsom
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Atlanta, 1985)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (148)

DEAD SEA SCROLLS FROM THE THIRD CENTURY C.E.

In his ecclesiastical history, Eusebius relates the story of Origen, who consulted scrolls found in caves near Jericho for his "Hexapla," a comprehensive redaction of the Hebrew Scriptures completed in the first half of the third century C.E.

In the . . . edition of the Psalms . . . [Origen reported] again how he found one of [the translations] at Jericho in a tunnel in the time of Antoninus the son of Severus.

Eusebius
Auncient ecclesiasticall histories . . . (London, 1585)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (112)

TODAY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS

These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress, May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.

THE SHAPIRA AFFAIR

In 1883, M.H. Shapira, a Jerusalem antiquities dealer, offered to sell fragments of an ancient manuscript of the biblical book of Deuteronomy. On examination by leading scholars of the day, the manuscripts were found to be forgeries. Disgraced and humiliated, Shapira committed suicide in 1884.

In view of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, some contemporary scholars have suggested that the Shapira fragments bear at least a surface resemblance to the Qumran manuscripts and have advocated re-examining their authenticity. Unfortunately, the Shapira fragments were sold at auction in 1885 and have since disappeared.

THE SHAPIRA AFFAIR

M.H. Shapira's daughter Myriam penned a thinly veiled fictionalized account of the scandal from the point of view of a devoted daughter. Serialized in France under the title of "La petite fille de Jerusalem," it was then translated into English as "The Little Daughter of Jerusalem" and published in New York and London.

In "The Shapira Affair," John Allegro, a leading scholar of the Dead Sea Scrolls and a member of the original scroll team, examined reproductions of the Shapira fragments in light of their resemblance to the Qumran documents.

John Marco Allegro
The Shapira Affair (Garden City, New York, 1965)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (133)

Myriam Harry
"La petite fille de Jerusalem,"
La Petite Illustration ([Paris] 1914)
Unbound serial
General Collections, Library of Congress (136)

Myriam Harry
The Little Daughter of Jerusalem (New York, 1919)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (137)

THE FIRST "DEAD SEA SCROLL": THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT

Scholar and educator Solomon Schechter's discovery in 1896 of a sectarian document--which turned out to be a medieval version of the Damascus Document--among the Cairo Genizah trove was first published in 1910 as "Fragments of a Zadokite Work." Displayed here is a reprint of this first Dead Sea Scroll publication, published 37 years before the discovery.

Solomon Schechter
Documents of Jewish Sectaries (New York, 1970)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (142)

THE ESSENE IDENTIFICATION

The first scholar to associate the Qumran community with the Essenes was Hebrew University Professor E.L. Sukenik. In this 1948 publication, Professor Sukenik wrote:

Whose cache [of documents] this is still requires investigation. But I found a clue that leads me to a hypothesis. When I examined the scrolls held by the Assyrians, I found in one of them a kind of book of regulations for the behavior of members of a sect or community. I am inclined to suggest that this hidden cache is from the Essene sect, which, as is known from the ancient sources, resided on the western shore of the Dead Sea, in the vicinity of Ein Gedi.

Eleazar Lipa Sukenik
Megillot Genuzot (Jerusalem, 1949)
Printed book, photograph of the War Rule Scroll
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (125)

THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT

Written by Baltimore Hebrew University scholar Joseph Baumgarten, this 1992 imprint includes an analysis of the Damascus Document and its relation to Jewish Law, or "halakhah."

Joseph M. Baumgarten
"The Laws of the Damascus Document in Current Research"
The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Magen Broshi, ed. (Jerusalem, 1992)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (157)

THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS: "A HOAX"

In the early 1950s, Professor Solomon Zeitlin of Dropsie University in Philadelphia argued strenuously--on philological grounds--that the antiquity of the Dead Sea Scrolls should be rejected. Subsequent carbon-14 tests on their linen wrappers firmly dated the finds to the late Second Temple Period and laid to rest arguments concerning the antiquity of the scrolls.

Solomon Zeitlin
The Dead Sea Scrolls and Modern Scholarship (Philadelphia, 1956)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (129)

THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS

The Dead Sea Scrolls were first displayed in the United States at the Library of Congress in October 1949. The scrolls belonged to Mar Athanasius Yeshua Samuel, the head of the Syrian Jacobite Monastery of St. Mark in Jerusalem. In 1954, he placed an advertisement in "The Wall Street Journal" offering "The Four Dead Sea Scrolls" for sale. Purchased for the State of Israel by archaeologist Yigael Yadin, these scrolls are housed today in The Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.

LC and the Dead Sea Scrolls
Newsreel 16mm print
Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, Library of Congress (183)

THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE SCROLLS

Mar Athansius Yeshua Samuel's account of his purchase of the scrolls is related in his "Treasure of Qumran." The volume is opened to a photograph of the Library of Congress exhibition in October 1949, showing Mar Samuel with then Librarian of Congress Luther Evans.

Athanasius Yeshua Samuel
Treasure of Qumran (London, 1968)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (141)

THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS

Alvin Kremer, Keeper of the Collection at the Library of Congress, prepared the two memoranda shown here which document the arrival and departure of the scrolls in 1949, and describe the precautions taken to safeguard the artifacts.

Alvin W. Kremer to John G. L. Andreassen
"Report on travel to obtain the Hebrew Scrolls" (October 24, 1949)
Memorandum
Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (155)

Alvin W. Kremer to John C.L. Andreassen
"Travel to deliver the Hebrew Scrolls to the Walters Gallery" (November 7, 1949)
Memorandum
Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (156)

THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS IN TRANSLATION

The Dead Sea Scrolls have been translated into scores of languages. Displayed here are books that include scroll translations in Yiddish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Arabic, Japanese, and Indonesian.

S. Glassman
Megiles fun Yam ha-Maylekh (New York, 1965)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (120)

Iosif Davidovich Amusin
Rukopisi Mertvoga Morya (Moscow, 1960)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (149)

Eugen Verber
Kumranski Rukopisi (Beograd, 1982)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (173)

M. al-Abidi
Makhtutat al-Bahr al Mayyit (Amman, 1967)
Printed book
Near East Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (174)

Shikai bunsho (Tokyo, 1963)
Printed book Japanese Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress (180)

Saleh A. Nahdi
Nafiri maut dari lembah Qamran (Djakarta, 1964)
Printed book
Southern Asian Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress (181)

ECCLESIASTICUS: THE WISDOM OF BEN SIRAH

Included among the Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus extols wisdom and ethical conduct. A Hebrew version of the book, which was known only in Greek after the tenth century, was discovered by Solomon Schechter in the Cairo Genizah in the late nineteenth century. Fragments of the original Hebrew version were discovered in Cave 2.

Displayed here are Greek (from the Septuagint), and Latin versions of Ecclesiasticus from the second of the great polyglot Bibles, the "Antwerp" or "Plantin" Polyglot.

Ecclesiasticus
[Plantin's Polyglot] (Antwerp, 1569-1572)
Printed book, volume 3
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (179)

THE "PIERCED MESSIAH" SCROLL

In September 1992, "Time Magazine" published an article on the War Rule fragment displayed here (object no. 12) exploring the differing interpretations. A "piercing messiah" reading would support the traditional Jewish view of a triumphant messiah. If, on the other hand, the fragment were interpreted as speaking of a "pierced messiah," it would anticipate the New Testament view of the preordained death of the messiah. The scholarly basis for these differing interpretations--but not their theological ramifications--are reviewed in "A Pierced or Piercing Messiah?"

Richard N. Ostling
"Is Jesus in the Dead Sea Scrolls?"
Time (September 21, 1992)
Unbound serial
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (187)

James D. Tabor
"A Pierced or Piercing Messiah?--The Verdict is Still Out"
Biblical Archaeology Review 18 (November-December 1992)
Unbound Serial
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (188)

THE PUBLICATION CONTROVERSY

Reacting to the official team's slow pace of scholarly publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls, two Hebrew Union College scholars developed a computer program that reconstructed Cave 4 texts from a decades-old concordance. Soon thereafter, the Huntington Library announced in the fall of 1991 that it would make available to scholars photographic copies of the scrolls that had been deposited in its vaults. Displayed here is the first part of the reconstruction.

Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg
A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (Washington, 1991)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress (128)

ADAM'S TIME LINE

This "sychronological" chart, compiled by Sebastian C. Adams, is a sweeping examination of biblical history. Printed by Stobridge & Co. of Cincinnati, Adam's time line went through at least ten editions attesting to its enormous popularity. Adam's explained the structure:

The stream of time is represented by the long black flowing line from left to right. The end of each hundred years is marked by the upright black pillars. . . The Nations and Kingdoms are represented by parallel streams . . . . When conquered or absorbed into another government, its stream terminates.

An "Explanation of the Plan of the Chart" is located at the top of panel 8, which depicts the early history of Christianity. The ancient sources consulted by Adams included Flavius Josephus, Pliny the Elder, Eusebius, and Origen--historians whose works are cited in this exhibition.

Sebastian C. Adams
A Chronological Chart of Ancient and Modern Biblical History, third edition (Cincinnati, 1898)
Chromo-lithograph, the first nine panels of twelve
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (191)

RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR TEACHERS

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barry, Iris. Discovering Archaeology. London: Trewin Copplestone Books, 1981.

A well-illustrated introduction to the way archaeologists work, the historic treasures they find, the conclusions they draw.

Carey, Helen H. How to use maps and globes. New York: Franklin Watts, 1983.

Clearly written explanation of how maps and globes are designed and how to use them.

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert series, I - IX. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955 - 1992.

The DJD is the official publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Additional volumes are planned over the next few years. The series includes identification, dating, and other technical information about the texts. Teachers should be aware of this scholarly series even though it may be inappropriate for use by most secondary school students.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and Tools for Study. Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study, no. 20. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1990.

A basic reference book that allows you to see what has been published about each scroll.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Paulist Press, 1992.

Answers to the most frequently asked questions about the scrolls by a prominent scholar in the field.

Hackwell, W. John. Signs, Letters, Words. New York: Scribner's, 1987.

A history of writing as put together from archaeological evidence.

Shanks, Hershel, editor. Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reader from the Biblical Archaeology Review. New York: Random House, 1992.

Anthology of articles by various authors with different points of view which provides a popular introduction to the controversy surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls. The editor was responsible for getting the scrolls exposed to the world through facsimile editions.

Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls In English. 3rd edition. London: Penguin Books, 1990.

An authoritative translation of the scrolls by an Oxford scholar. In hardback and paperback editions.

Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective. Revised edition. Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1977.

Presents the view that the scrolls are a product of the Essenes, a sectarian group. Provides a good introduction on a scholarly level. Available in hardback and paperback editions. The author is the keynote speaker at the Library of Congress symposium.

Wilson, Edmund. Israel and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1978.

Excellent introduction by a famous critic concerning the discovery and early theories about the Qumran community. First appeared in the New Yorker in the 1950's where it served to introduce millions of Americans to the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect. New York: Random House, 1985.

Describes the last large scroll -- the Temple Scroll -- to be uncovered. The profuse illustrations and accessible content make this a worthwhile book for secondary school use.

SELECTIVE LIST OF FILMS

The Arab World. [Videorecording]. Middleton, WI: Knowledge Unlimited, 1988. 20 min., col., vhs. Incl. tchr's. guide. Tel: 608-836-6660

Depicts the Arab world as the gateway to Africa, Asia, and Europe. The earliest civilizations and three major world religions took root in this part of the world. It is rich in one of the most vital natural resources, oil, and in the 20th century, it has been a land in nearly constant turmoil & conflict.

The Archaeologist and How He Works. [Videorecording]. Chicago, IL: International Film Bureau, Inc. 1965. 18 min., col., vhs; beta; 3/4". Tel: 312-427-4545

Filmed on an actual archaeological expedition and shows all phases of the operation from planning, to handling materials, to follow-up work in museums.

The Dead Sea in Biblical Times. [Videorecording]. New York, NY: Doko Communications, Inc. 1988. col., vhs; beta. Tel:212-686-6160

Visits many sites important to Christianity and Judaism.

Dead Sea Scrolls. [Film]. Panorama City, CA: Family Films, 1960. 15 min., col., 16mm. Address: 14622 Lanarck St., Panorama City, CA 91402

Shows the caves and sites where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. The thousands of fragments being worked on by scholars and other scenes emphasize the importance of the discovery of the scrolls.

Israel: History, Land & People. [Videorecording]. New Y, NY: Phoenix/ BFA Films & Video, 1978. 18 min., col., vhs; beta; 16mm. Tel: 800-221-1274

Tells the story of the Jewish people and their homeland starting with Biblical times. Moves through Jewish history to the establishment of modern Israel in 1948.

Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. [Film]. Madison, WI: Bureau of Audio-Visual Instruction, {Univ. of WI-La Crosse}, 1972. 25 min., col., 16 mm. Tel: 800-831-9504

Shows the caves where the scrolls and fragments were found and rooms in the ruins of Qumran on the shores of the Dead Sea. Dr. Charles Fritsch interviews Dr.Yigael Yadin about the Temple Scroll and the monastic sect of Essenes.

Secrets of the Dead Sea Scrolls. [Videorecording]. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities, Inc., 1992. 60 min., col,. vhs; beta; 3/4". Tel: 800-257-5126

Originally presented on the PBS Nova series. Documents how the scrolls were discovered by a Bedouin shepherd, smuggled to Bethlehem, and sold on the black market to antiquities dealers. Discusses the meaning of the scrolls and the scholarly debate concerning the scrolls and the Qumran ruin.

OTHER SOURCES

American Schools of Oriental Research
711 West 40th Street, Suite 354
Baltimore, MD 21211
Phone: (301) 889-1383
Dr. Eric M. Meyers, President

Conducts archaeological research on the peoples and cultures of the Near East, from the early to modern periods. Maintains data bases. Publishes the Biblical Archeologist, the Journal of Cuneiform Studies, a monograph series, and a quarterly newsletter.

Biblical Archaeology Society
3000 Connecticut Avenue, NW Suite 300
Washington, D.C. 20008
Phone: (202) 387-8888

Publishers of the influential journal, Biblical Archaeology Review as well as other publications relating to the Dead Sea scrolls and Near Eastern archaeology.

Israel Exploration Society
P. O. Box 7041
Jerusalem, 91070, Israel

Publishes a journal and monograph series in English on archaeology of the Holy Land.

Near East Archaeological Society
c/o Dr. W. Harold Mare
Covenant Theological Seminary
12330 Conway Road
St. Louis, MO 63141
Phone: (314) 434-4044

Promotes archaeological and biblical research in Israel and the surrounding Near East region. Publishes a journal and provides information.

Society of Biblical Literature
1549 Clairmont Road, Suite 204
Decatur, GA 30033-4635
Phone: (404) 636-4744
David J. Lull, Executive Director

Supports the study of ancient languages, textual criticism, history, and archaeology of the Near Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Maintains data bases. Publishes a journal and educational and reference materials.