Chapter 2
Approach To The Patient

John V. L. Sheffield, MD
Gloria A. Casale, MD, MSPH

Basic Elements of Care   TOP

What are the special challenges of caring for patients with HIV/AIDS?

Providers need to be mindful of several special issues:

• Patients infected with HIV face a complex array of medical, psychological, and social challenges. A strong provider-patient relationship, the assistance of a multidisciplinary care team, and frequent office visits are usually required to provide excellent care.
• The stigma associated with HIV/AIDS places a major psychological burden on patients. Confidentiality is critical, as is a careful assessment of each patient's emotional support system.
• Ethnic minorities are over-represented among people with HIV. Efforts to understand and acknowledge the beliefs of patients from a variety of cultural backgrounds are necessary to establish trust between providers and patients.
• Providers play a key role in the public health system's HIV prevention strategy. Disease reporting, partner notification, and risk assessment are important aspects of care.
• Many patients have inaccurate AIDS information that can heighten their anxiety, sabotaging treatment adherence and appropriate prevention behaviors. They need assurance that HIV is a treatable disease and that with successful treatment, patients may live indefinitely. They also need to hear explicitly that HIV is transmitted through sexual contact, intravenous drug use, and blood contact (perinatal or other) and how they can prevent transmission to others.

What are the important components of good HIV care?

The elements that ensure good care for people with HIV/AIDS include mechanisms for coordination and communication of care:

• Clinics must offer a nonjudgmental and supportive environment because of the sensitive nature of issues that must be discussed.
• A multidisciplinary approach, utilizing the special skills of nurses, pharmacists, nutritionists, social workers, and case managers is highly desirable to help physicians address patients' needs regarding housing, medical insurance, emotional support, financial benefits, substance abuse counseling, and legal issues.
• Providers and other clinic staff should be prepared to conduct appropriate interventions and make timely referrals to community resources and institutions.
• The primary provider should coordinate care, with close communication among providers across disciplines.
• Individual office visits should be long enough to allow a thorough evaluation.
• Providers must be able to see patients frequently for good continuity of care, and clinic scheduling should be flexible so that patients with acute problems can be seen quickly.
• A range of medical resources, including providers with subspecialties and laboratory expertise, must be in place (see Chapter 16: Clinic Management).
• Patient education is a vital aspect of care that begins during the initial evaluation and continues throughout the course of care (see section on Patient Education below).

What steps can providers take to enhance care?

Providing comprehensive care for patients infected with HIV requires a lot of time, attention to detail, and a strong patient-provider relationship. Specifically, the provider should do the following:

• Discuss issues in a straightforward fashion to foster trust and openness.
• Be realistic about the seriousness of HIV disease and yet, to instill hope, be optimistic about the potential to restore health and to provide comfort. Give accurate information regarding prognosis and the real hope that antiretrovirals provide.
• Encourage patients to learn all they can about their condition and take an active role in decisions regarding their care.
• Anticipate that significant time will be required for patient education (see section on Patient Education below).
• Explicitly outline clinic operations and expectations for provider-patient communication.
• Plan to see patients often and communicate regularly between visits to answer questions, assess treatment effectiveness, and manage side effects.
• Arrange to see patients with acute problems quickly.

How can providers help patients with HIV/AIDS cope with the emotional issues they face?

Patients coming to terms with HIV infection often experience a range of emotions, including anger, fear, shock, disbelief, sadness, and depression. Loss is a major issue for patients with HIV disease because health, employment, income, relationships with friends, lovers, and family, and hope may all be threatened. Many patients feel overwhelmed, and providers need to recognize that a patient's emotional state affects the ability to solve problems and attend to important medical or social issues. Even patients who seem to be adjusting reasonably well can find it difficult to keep all of the appointments that are scheduled as they initiate care. Providers can do the following:

• Assess each patient's emotional state and the availability of friends and family for emotional support. Patients may feel hesitant about seeking emotional support, and some will need counseling to help them decide whether to disclose their diagnosis to friends, family, or employers.
• Deliver important information in easily understood terms and in small amounts. Reassess patient understanding of crucial information at subsequent visits, and repeat important information as necessary.
• Screen for anxiety, depression (including suicidal ideation), and substance use.
• Refer patients to community resources for crisis counseling, support groups, and, if appropriate, psychiatric treatment to help them achieve emotional stability (see also Chapter 14: Mental Health Disorders).
• Assign a case manager who can help reduce anxiety about keeping life in order.
  

Stigma and Discrimination   TOP

Why is stigma associated with HIV/AIDS?

Stigma is founded on fear and misinformation. Theodore de Bruyn has observed that stigma is associated with HIV/AIDS because "it is a life-threatening disease; people are afraid of contracting HIV; it is associated with behaviors that are considered deviant; a belief that HIV/AIDS has been contracted due to unacceptable lifestyle choices; and, some believe it is the result of a moral fault which deserves punishment" (de Bruyn, Theodore. Paper prepared for the Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. 1999).

Stigma can adversely affect how patients are perceived by others and how they view themselves. The stigma associated with HIV/AIDS is such that individuals known to be or suspected of being infected with HIV may be excluded from community activities and suffer isolation or abandonment. Some patients may feel ambivalent about seeking medical care if by doing so they risk disclosing their condition. Others may have learned from experience to expect rejection and are therefore untrusting of all care providers. It is essential for providers to be supportive of patients dealing with the burden of stigma.

How can providers support patients facing the stigma of fear of contagion?

The clinic must be inviting, and all staff members must model behavior in this area. For example, gloves should be worn only as appropriate during physical exams and as consistent with universal precautions. There should not be separate facilities or procedures for HIV-infected patients. Patients and their families are often unaware that routine household contact with a person with HIV poses no risk of contagion. They should be educated about this but also taught what to do in situations that do pose risk, such as bleeding.

How can providers support patients who face stigma associated with being gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender?

Demonstrating respect and providing excellent care to patients with various cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and sexual orientations define professionalism. Providers should approach patients in an open and nonjudgmental fashion and be familiar with medical management issues unique to these populations, such as STD screening for men who have sex with men (MSM) and high-dose hormonal treatment for transgender male-to-female patients. Clinic staff members must also be respectful and supportive; having staff who are familiar with gay and lesbian culture is a natural way to create a welcoming environment. Providers and social workers should be aware of community agencies with resources available to people who are gay, lesbian, or transgender. In addition, providers and clinic staff should be aware of special legal issues that affect these populations. For example, designating a durable power of attorney for medical decision making can be particularly important in states that do not recognize same-gender partners as legal next of kin.

What other special cultural issues affect patients infected with HIV?

Minorities are disproportionately affected by HIV, and many people of color with HIV disease have major socioeconomic problems such as poverty, homelessness, lack of medical insurance, lack of acculturation, and undocumented immigration status. All of these can make accessing health care difficult and attending to health problems less of a priority. A patient's cultural background influences health beliefs and behaviors, and the effectiveness of provider-patient communication may affect compliance with therapy. In addition, prior adverse experiences may make some patients distrustful of medical care. For all of these reasons, providers should do the following:

• Carefully explore what each patient believes about his or her health, what would be appropriate treatment, and who should be involved in medical decision making.
• Use professional interpreters to help overcome language barriers.
• Use case managers to help overcome social barriers.

Confidentiality and Disclosure   TOP

Why is confidentiality especially important for patients with HIV disease?

Confidentiality of medical information is always mandatory, but the stakes are particularly high for patients infected with HIV, who risk losing medical insurance, employment, or the support of friends or family if the wrong individuals learn of their diagnosis. Unfortunately, fear and ignorance persist regarding HIV transmission; people with HIV disease may be shunned because of the incorrect belief that HIV can be transmitted via casual contact. Although people with HIV disease are protected against discrimination under provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act, discrimination can be difficult to prove, and there are strict time limits after which charges of discrimination can no longer be made.

What steps should providers take to protect patient confidentiality?

By adhering to the newly implemented Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) regulations, providers are protecting patient confidentiality. Personnel policies should reinforce measures such as requiring that papers and computer screens containing patient identifying information not be left unattended and documenting whether phone messages can be left for the patient, and if they can, with whom.

How can providers help patients decide whom to disclose their HIV status to?

Patients with a support network function better than those who are isolated. However, patients' fear of disclosure is often well founded, and providers must find a balance between accepting patients' unwillingness to disclose and the need to develop support networks. Patients may find support groups or individual psychotherapy sessions beneficial in deciding to whom and when to disclose.

The sex and needle-sharing partners of people with HIV need to be informed about their possible exposure to HIV. The local health department should be able to either assist patients in making these disclosures or provide anonymous partner notification for them.

What public health role do providers play in the HIV epidemic?

Primary care providers must also consider their public health role in curbing the spread of HIV. The nationwide increase in the incidence of syphilis and gonorrhea, especially among MSM, suggests that the advent of potent antiretroviral therapy has resulted in relaxed adherence to safer sex recommendations. All patients with a diagnosis of AIDS and, in many states, those with a positive HIV test must be reported to the State health department. Laws vary by state regarding reporting requirements and subsequent notification of potentially exposed individuals, but the name of the source contact is never divulged to the person being notified. Providers should become familiar with the laws of their jurisdiction by contacting their health departments. (The Association of State and Territorial Health Officers provides links to all State health departments.)

Providers are required to do the following:

• Inform patients whose positive HIV or AIDS status must be reported to the State health department, tell them if partner notification is required, and explain what they should expect regarding efforts that must be made by the patient, provider, or health department to notify sex partners or individuals who may have been exposed to HIV through their needle sharing. Assure them that the patient's name is always kept confidential, and is never given to potentially exposed individuals by the Health Department.
• Carefully assess patients' risk-taking behaviors, educate them regarding HIV transmission, and perform STD screening (see question on STD screening in this chapter).
• Provide counseling to encourage safer sexual practices (see section on Risk Assessment and Counseling below) and make referrals to drug rehabilitation or needle exchange centers (see Chapter 13: Management of Substance Abuse).
  The recently released Federal guidelines on prevention for persons living with HIV, which contain recommendations for providers, are listed in the Suggested Resources below. (See also Chapter 4: Prevention of HIV in the Clinical Care Setting.)

Patient Education   TOP

What does patient education involve?

The provider should assess the patient's understanding of HIV disease and begin patient education at the initial evaluation. To make sound decisions regarding treatment, the patient must understand certain medical information, including:

• The critical role of the patient in his or her own care
• Natural history of HIV disease and consequences of immune system destruction
• How HIV is transmitted
• The meaning of the viral load and CD4 count
• The beneficial impact of antiretroviral drugs
• Early signs and symptoms of opportunistic illnesses
• The role of prophylactic agents

What should patients understand before beginning antiretroviral therapy?

Before initiating antiretroviral therapy, patients must be fully aware of:

• The importance of adhering completely to the treatment regimen
• The possibility of drug resistance and loss of treatment options
• The proper timing of pills and coordinating pill-taking with meals
• Possible side effects and long-term drug toxicities
• The option to stop treatment at any time

In addition, patients should express a commitment to adhere to treatment before providers initiate any form of treatment. (For more on adherence, see Chapter 7: Adherence.)

How should providers incorporate patient education into care?

Patient education is so important that entire clinic visits are often devoted to a discussion of key concepts. Providers should use easily understood language and confirm the patient's understanding of medical terms and concepts. During these discussions, it is helpful for providers to be flexible, acknowledging that uncertainties exist regarding optimal medical management of HIV disease.

Because patient education is time-consuming, many HIV specialty clinics utilize staff other than the primary care provider, such as nurses and nurse practitioners who specialize in HIV clinical care, physician's assistants, pharmacists, and trained peer educators. This interdisciplinary team approach can supplement the limited time primary care providers often have with patients.

What information resources are available for patients?

Clinics can provide patient education materials and make referrals to social workers, nutritionists, pharmacists, and financial advisers who serve as first-line sources of information about medical issues and social services available in the community. At the regional level, community-based HIV/AIDS organizations and county and State public health departments offer information about medical care and facilitate access to legal aid, financial assistance, low-income housing, support groups, and other social services. At the national level, many organizations provide comprehensive information about HIV/AIDS. Table 2-1 lists recommended resources to which providers can refer patients for information and support.

Risk Assessment and Counseling   TOP

What risk-taking behaviors should be reviewed with patients?

Patients infected with HIV who practice unsafe sex or inject drugs can infect others, be reinfected themselves with new HIV strains, or contract STDs, viral hepatitis, or other infections. Abuse of alcohol or illicit drugs is directly harmful and may affect adherence to a complicated medical regimen. Accordingly, providers need a detailed understanding of their patients' risk-taking behaviors to guide patient education and counseling efforts and to assess the advisability of initiating antiretroviral treatment.

Table 2-2 lists specific risk-taking behaviors to review with patients. See also Chapter 4: Prevention of HIV in the Clinical Care Setting and Chapter 13: Management of Substance Abuse.

• Caring for patients with HIV/AIDS requires a strong provider-patient relationship, a multidisciplinary care team, and frequent office visits.
• Stigma and discrimination must be addressed through strong confidentiality protections, emotional support, and cultural sensitivity.
• Patient education about the disease process, treatment, and community resources is a vital component of care.
• The primary care provider plays a key role in risk assessment and counseling for all patients with HIV.

Suggested Resources   TOP

Aranda-Naranjo B, Davis R. Psychosocial and cultural considerations. In: A Guide to the Clinical Care of Women with HIV/AIDS, 1st ed. Washington: US Department of Health and Human Services, HRSA, HIV/AIDS Bureau; 2001.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Incorporating HIV prevention into the medical care of persons living with HIV. MMWR Recommendations and Reports, (July 18, 2003; 52(RR12);1-24.

Hecht FM, Wilson IB, Wu AW, Cook RL, Turner BJ. Society of General Internal Medicine AIDS Task Force. Optimizing care for persons with HIV infection.
Ann Intern Med. 1999;131:136-143.

Positive Living. A practical guide for people with HIV. Seattle: Public Health-Seattle & King County, HIV/AIDS Program; 1999.

Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing? Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 1995;23:325-334.